History of Pakistan and India

The history of India begins with evidence of human activity of Home sapiens, as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including Home erectus from about 500,000 years ago. The lands Valley Cavitation. Which spread and flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent

from c.3300 to 1300 BCE in present-day Pakistan and northwest India was the first major civilization in South Asia? A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappa. Period from 2600 to 1900 BCE. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed before the end of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilization which extended over much of the indo Gang etic plain and which witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas . Bronze Age. Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maura Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or Golden Age of India. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed before the end of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilization which extended over much of the Indo-Gang etic plain and which witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms, Magadha Mohair was born in the 6th or 5th century BCE and propagated their Shamanic philosophies. Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maura Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. Various parts of India ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next 1,500 years among which the Gupta Empire stands out. Southern India saw the rule of the Chalukyas Cholas Pal lavas and Pandas. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India. During this period, aspects of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion Hinduism and Buddhism spread too much of Asia, while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Roman Empire from around 77 CE. Muslim rule started in some parts of north India in the 13th century when the Delhi Sultanate was established in 1206 CE. During the reign of Aladdin Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughluq the Delhi Sultanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early 14th century and raids were conducted into southern India. After the death of Muhammad bin Tughluq the Delhi Sultanate declined and its territories were confined to some parts of the Indo-Gang etic Plain. The 15th century saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu kingdoms like the Vijayanagara Empire in south India, the Guajarati Kingdom in eastern India and Rajput kingdoms in northwestern India. The northern Deccan was ruled by the Bahrain Sultanate and parts of the Indo Gang etic Plain was still ruled by the Delhi Sultanate. Mughal rule came from Central Asia to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent in the 16th century. Mughal rulers introduced Central Asian art and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals and various Rajput kingdoms, several independent Hindu states, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, the Maratha Empire, Eastern Ganga Empire and the Atom Kingdom, flourished contemporaneously in southern, western, eastern and northeastern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Maratha Empire to exercise control over large areas in the subcontinent. Beginning in the late 18th century and over the next century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 after which the British provinces of India were directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the natives irrespective of caste, creed or religion, the leading party being Indian National Congress which was later joined by Muslim League as well. The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947 after the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the new states. James Mill 1773 1836 in his The History of British India 1817 distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu Muslim and British civilizations.

Indian philosophers

This periodization has been criticized, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodization is the division into "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill's periodization while Flood and Muse follow the ancient classical, mediaeval and modern periods periodization. Different periods are designated as classical Hinduism. Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE pre-classical. It's the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-Buddhism in India For Michaels the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of Ascetic reformism whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions.Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE which he calls the Classical Period. This was a time when traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The Brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic period. According to Muse some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and personal enlightenment and transformation which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time. Indian philosophers came to regard the human as an immortal soul encased in a perishable body and bound by action, or karma to a cycle of endless existences. According to Muse, reincarnation is a fundamental principle of virtually all religions formed in Indias.The period of the ascetic reforms saw the rise of Buddhism and Jainism while Sikhism originated during the time of Islamic rule Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hath Nora in the Narmada Valley in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent. Ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements and some of its major civilizations. The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the Paleolithic hominid site in the Sean River valley. Sonia sites are found in the Visalia region across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.

7500 BCE in Haryana India

The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by the Neolithic period, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semi permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Biryani findings 7500 BCE in Haryana India Merger findings 7000 BCE onwards in Baluchistan, Pakistan. Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the Gulf of Kham bat in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE. However, the one dredged piece of wood in question was found in an area of strong ocean currents. Neolithic agriculture cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE.in the lower Gang etic valley around 3000 BCE, and in later South India, spreading southwards and also northwards into Malawi around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilization of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilisation.The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilization. It was centered on the Indus River and its tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley the Ganges Yamuna Doab Gujarat and southeastern Afghanistan. The civilization is primarily located in modern-day India Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces and Pakistan Sindh Punjab and Baluchistan provinces Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley the Harappa’s developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft carnal products, seal carving and produced copper bronze lead and tin. The Mature Indus civilization flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilization on the subcontinent. The civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira Kalimantan Rupert Rakhigarhi and Lethal in modern-day India, and Harappa Ganeriwala and Moreno dare in modern-day Pakistan. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses. Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanism norms a process sometimes called Sanskritization. It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts. The Koru kingdom corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Grey Ware cultures and to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1000 BCE as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention iron, as same ayes, literally black metal. The Painted Grey Ware culture spanned much of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE. The Vedic Period also established republics such as Vishal, which existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away from the previous tribal system towards the establishment of kingdoms, called after conquering Persia, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate incorporated parts of what is now Pakistan around 720.

The Muslim rulers

The Muslim rulers were keen to invade India a rich region with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world In 712 Arab Muslim general Muhammad bin Passim conquered most of the Indus region in modern day Pakistan for the Umayyad empire, incorporating it as the As Sindh province with its capital at Al Man surah 72 km 45 mi north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh, Pakistan. After several wars the Hindu Rajas defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Rajasthan, halting their expansion and containing them at Sindh in Pakistan Many short lived Islamic kingdoms sultanates under foreign rulers were established across the north western subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal south India, particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian Peninsula. This marked the introduction of a third Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity, often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahrain Sultanate and Deccan sultanates, founded by Turkic rulers flourished in the south. The Vijayanagara Empire rose to prominence by the end of the 13th century as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions. The empire dominated all of Southern India and fought off invasions from the five established Deccan Sultanates. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalong, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. It lasted until 1646 though its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. As a result, much of the territory of the former Vijay agar Empire were captured by Deccan Sultanates and the remainder was divided into many states ruled by Hindu rulers the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings. The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire while the Chili dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting/

India-Muslim

Indo Muslim fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music literature religion and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu literally meaning horde or camp in various Turkic dialects was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskrit Procrit’s with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana 1236 1240.A Turbo-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timor (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nassir-u Din Mahmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timor entered Delhi and the city was sacked destroyed, and left in ruins, after Timor’s army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the other Muslims; 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day. The Empire was established in 1336 by Marinara I and his brother Bakke Raya I of Sangamon Dynasty. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hamper, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India. The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hamper. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Machala of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.

India Razia Sultana 1236-1240

The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada Telugu Tamil and Sanskrit while Carnatic music evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan including Kalong, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya.The 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings. The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Chili dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu literally meaning "horde" or camp in various Turkic dialects was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskrit Procrit’s with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India Razia Sultana 1236-1240. A Turbo-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia Timor Tamerlane. Attacked the reigning Sultan Nassir-u Din Mahmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timor entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timor’s army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be Sacked except for the sayyids, scholars and the other Muslims; 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day. The Empire was established in 1336 by Marinara I and his brother Bakke Raya I of Sangamon Dynasty. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century.

Indian mathematics

The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hamper, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka India. The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hamper. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Machala of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit while Carnatic music evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalong, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya. The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule two-thirds of the subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely states that accounted for the remaining one-third of the area. There were 674 of the states in 1900 with a population of 73 million, or one person in five. In general, the princely states were strong supporters of the British regime, and the Raj left them alone. They were finally closed down in 1947-48. The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councilors to advise the British viceroy in 1861 the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councilors’ participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British, and many of the troops from small minority groups such as Purchas from Nepal and Sikhs. The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels with the British holding the more senior positions. From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. Some others adopted a militant approach that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle; revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian sub-continent. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-cooperation, civil disobedience and economic resistance. These movements succeeded in bringing independence to the new dominions of India and Pakistan in 1947(Pakistan and India).