Pakistan Swat River Pashto History
Ali ibn Talib from 656 to 661
Prophets in Islam
In Muslim culture Ali is respected for his courage, knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad equal treatment of all Muslims and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies and therefore is central to mystical traditions in Islam such as Sufism. Ali retains his stature as an authority on Quranic exegesis Islamic jurisprudence and religious thought Ali holds a high position in almost all Sufi orders which trace their lineage through him to Muhammad. Ali's influence has been important throughout Islamic history. Ali's father Abu Talib was the custodian of the Kaaba and a sheikh of the Bani Hashim, an important branch of the powerful Quraysh tribe. He was also an uncle of Muhammad. Ali's mother, Fatima bint Asad also belonged to Banu Hashim, making Ali a descendant of Ishmael the son of Ibrahim Abraham. Many sources especially Shia ones, attest that Ali was born inside the Kaibab in the city of Mecca, where he stayed with his mother for three days. According to a tradition, Muhammad was the first person whom Ali saw as he took the newborn in his hands. Muhammad named him Ali meaning the exalted one. Muhammad had a close relationship with Ali's parents. When Muhammad was orphaned and later lost his grandfather Abdul Mutely, Ali's father took him into his house. Ali was born two or three years after Muhammad married Khadijah bent Khuwaylid. When Ali was five or six years old, a famine occurred in and around Mecca, affecting the economic conditions of Ali's father, who had a large family to support. Muhammad took Ali into his home to raise him. Muslims identify the prophets of Islam as those humans who were assigned a special mission by God to guide humans. Muslims believe that every prophet was given a belief to worship God and their respective followers believed it as well. Each prophet, in Muslim belief, preached the same main belief The Oneness of the Divine Creator, worshiping of that One God, avoidance of idolatry and sin and the belief in the Day of Resurrection. Each came to preach Islam at different times in history and some told of the coming of the final prophet and messenger of God, who would be named Ahmad commonly known as Muhammad. Each prophet directed a message to a different group of people, and thus would preach Islam in accordance with the times. Prophets are Messengers whom have been ordered to convey and propagate what God revealed to them. To believe in the Messengers means to believe that God has sent them to creation to guide them, and perfect their life, and their hereafter, and He has aided them with miracles which demonstrate their truthfulness; and that they have conveyed the message of God; and have revealed what they were ordered to reveal to the responsible and accountable individuals; and it is obligatory to respect all of them, and not to discriminate or differentiate between any of them, and they are infallible from minor sins and enormities. Islamic tradition holds that God sent messengers to every nation. Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad to transmit the message of the Quran, the holy book which, according to Islam, is universal in its message. The reason the Muslims believe the Quran is universal and will remain uncorrupted is because they believe that previous Islamic holy books, namely the Torah given to Moses, the Psalms given to David, and the Gospel given to Jesus, were for a particular time and community and because they believe that, even if the books were corrupted, many prophets were still to come who could tell the people of what was correct in the scripture and warn them of corruptions. Muhammad therefore, being the last prophet, was vouchsafed a book which, in Muslim belief, will remain in its true form till the Last Day. Ali's father Abu Talia was the custodian of the Kaibab and a sheikh of the Bane Hashmi, an important branch of the powerful Quays tribe. He was also an uncle of Muhammad. Ali's mother, Fatima bent Assad, also belonged to Bane Hashmi, making Ali a descendant of Ishmael, the son of Ibrahim Abraham.Birth and childhood
Many sources, especially Shia ones, attest that Ali was born inside the Kaibab in the city of Mecca, where he stayed with his mother for three days. According to a tradition, Muhammad was the first person whom Ali saw as he took the newborn in his hands. Muhammad named him Ali, meaning the exalted one. Muhammad had a close relationship with Ali's parents. When Muhammad was orphaned and later lost his grandfather Abdul Mutely, Ali's father took him into his house. Ali was born two or three years after Muhammad married Khadijah bent Khuwaylid. When Ali was five or six years old, a famine occurred in and around Mecca, affecting the economic conditions of Ali's father, who had a large family to support. Muhammad took Ali into his home to raise him.Etymology and meaning
Quran in the British Museum. The word Quran appears about 70 times in the Quran itself, assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun master of the Arabic verb area. Meaning he read or he recited. The Syria equivalent is querying, which refers to scripture reading” or “lesson. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syria, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is area itself. Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the “act of reciting,” as reflected in an early Quartic passage It is for us to collect it and to recite it Quran au. In other verses, the word refers to “an individual passage recited by Muhammad. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example so when al-Quran is recited, listen to it and keep silent. The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of Quran in certain contexts. Such terms include kitbag book ayah sign and surah scripture. The latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article al- the word is referred to as the revelation way that which has been sent down tonsil at intervals. Other related words are shirk remembrance used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning, and ḥikmah wisdom sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it. The Quran describes itself as "the discernment or the criterion between truth and falsehood" al-furan the mother book umm al-kitbag the guide Huda the wisdom Hamah the remembrance shirk and the revelation tonsil something sent down, signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place). Another term is al-kitbag the book. Though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term mushed written work is often used to refer to particular Quartic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books. Other transliterations of Quran include al-Coram Coram Koran and al-Quran.Election as Caliph
Ali was caliph between 656 and 661, during one of the most turbulent periods in Muslim history, which also coincided with the First Fiona. Othman’s assassination meant that rebels had to select a new caliph. This met with difficulties since the rebels were divided into several groups comprising the Muhajirun, Ansari, Egyptians, Kuban’s and bastes. There were three candidates: Ali, Talan and al-Zakary. First the rebels approached Ali, requesting him to accept being the caliph. Some of Muhammad's companions tried to persuade Ali in accepting the office but he turned down the offer, suggesting being a counselor instead of a chief. Talhah, Zakary and other companions also refused the rebels' offer of the caliphate. Therefore, the rebels warned the inhabitants of Medina to select a caliph within one day, or they would apply drastic action. In order to resolve the deadlock, the Muslims gathered in the Mosque of the Prophet on June 18, 656 to appoint the caliph. Initially Ali refused to accept simply because his most vigorous supporters were rebels. However, when some notable companions of Muhammad, in addition to the residents of Medina, urged him to accept the offer, he finally agreed. According to Abu Mekhnaf's narration, Talan was the first prominent companion who gave his pledge to Ali, but other narrations claimed otherwise, stating they were forced to give their pledge. Also, Talan and Zakary later claimed they supported him reluctantly. Regardless, Ali refuted these claims, insisting they recognized him as caliph voluntarily. Wilfred Made lung believes that force did not urge people to give their pledge and they pledged publicly in the mosque while the overwhelming majority of Medina's population as well as many of the rebels gave their pledge, some important figures or tribes did not do so. The Umayyad’s, kinsmen of Othman, fled to the Levant or remained in their houses, later refusing Ali's legitimacy. Salad ibn Abe Waa’s was absent and Abdullah ibn Umar abstained from offering his allegiance, but both of them assured Ali that they would not act against him. Reign as Caliph Since the conflicts in which Ali was involved were perpetuated in polemical sectarian historiography, biographical material is often biased. But the sources agree that he was a profoundly religious man, devoted to the cause of Islam and the rule of justice in accordance with the Quran and the Sunni; he engaged in war against erring Muslims as a matter of religious duty. The sources abound in notices on his austerity, rigorous observance of religious duties, and detachment from worldly goods. Thus some authors have pointed out that he lacked political skill and flexibility. Ali inherited the Rashidun Caliphate—which extended from Egypt in the west to the Iranian highlands in the east—while the situation in the Hejaz and the other provinces on the eve of his election was unsettled. Soon after Ali became caliph, he dismissed provincial governors who had been appointed by Othman, replacing them with trusted aides. He acted against the counsel of Muglia ibn Shi’a and Ibn Abbas, who had advised him to proceed his governing cautiously. Made lung says Ali was deeply convinced of his right and his religious mission, unwilling to compromise his principles for the sake of political expediency, and ready to fight against overwhelming odds. Maliyah I, the kinsman of Othman and governor of the Levant, refused to submit to Ali's orders; he was the only governor to do so. When he was appointed caliph, Ali stated to the citizens of Medina that Muslim polity had come to be plagued by dissension and discord; he desired to purge Islam of any evil. He advised the populace to behave as true Muslims, warning that he would tolerate no sedition and those who were found guilty of subversive activities would be dealt with harshly. Ali recovered the land granted by Othman and swore to recover anything that elites had acquired before his election. Ali opposed the centralization of capital control over provincial revenues, favoring an equal distribution of taxes and booty amongst the Muslim citizens; he distributed the entire revenue of the treasury among them. Ali refrained from nepotism, including with his brother Aqeel ibn Abu Talib. This was an indication to Muslims of his policy of offering equality to Muslims who served Islam in its early years and to the Muslims who played a role in the later conquests. Ali succeeded in forming a broad coalition especially after the Battle of the Camel. His policy of equal distribution of taxes and booty gained the support of Muhammad's companions, especially the Ansari who were subordinated by the Quays leadership after Muhammad, the traditional tribal leaders, and the Quran or Quran reciters that sought pious Islamic leadership. The successful formation of this diverse coalition seems to be due to Ali's charismatic character. This diverse coalition became known as Shi'a Ali, meaning "party" or "faction of Ali". However according to Shia, as well as non-Shia reports, the majority of those who supported Ali after his election as caliph, was Shia politically, not religiously. Although at this time there were many who counted as political Shia, few of them believed Ali's religious leadership.First Fitna
Aisha, Talhah, Al-Zakary and Umayyad, especially Maliyah I and Marwan I, wanted Ali to punish the rioters who had killed Othman. They wanted Ali to arrest Afghan’s killer and not to fight Maliyah I. They encamped close to Basra. The talks lasted for many days and the subsequent heated exchange and protests during the parley turned from words to blows, leading to loss of life on both sides. In the confusion the Battle of the Camel started in 656, where Ali emerged victorious. Marwan was arrested but he later asked Hassan and Hussein for assistance and was released. They went to Iraq to get Ali to arrest the murderers of Othman and not to fight Maliyah I. However some historians believe that they used this issue to seek their political ambitions because they found Ali's caliphate against their own benefit. On the other hand, the rebels maintained that Othman had been justly killed, for not governing according to Quran and Sunni; hence no vengeance was to be invoked. Historians disagree on Ali's position. Some say the caliphate was a gift of the rebels and Ali did not have enough force to control or punish them while others say Ali accepted the rebels' argument or at least did not consider Othman just ruler. Under such circumstances, a schism took place which led to the first civil war in Muslim history. Some Muslims, known as Othman’s, considered Othman a rightful and just Caliph Islamic leader till the end, who had been unlawfully killed. Some others, who are known as party of Ali, believed Othman had fallen into error, he had forfeited the caliphate and been lawfully executed for his refusal to mend his way or step down; thus Ali was the just and true Imam and his opponents are infidels. This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community regarding who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate. The First Fiona, 656–661 followed the assassination of Othman, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended by Maliyah’s assumption of the caliphate. This civil war often called the Fiona is regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic amah nation. Ali appointed Abdi Allah ibn al -Abbas governor of Basra and moved his capital to Kura, the Muslim garrison city in Iraq. A few years earlier there had be tensions between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria, formally under the Byzantine Empire, during the Byzantine-Sassanid Wars. The Iraqis wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in Kura. They convinced Ali to come to Kura and establish the capital in Kura. Kura was also in the middle of Islamic land and had strategic position.Policies
Later Maliyah I, the governor of Levant and the cousin of Othman, refused Ali's demands for allegiance. Ali opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Maliyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule. Maliyah replied by mobilizing his Levantine supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. Ali then moved his armies North and the two armies encamped themselves at Safin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although Ali exchanged several letters with Maliyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Safin in 657. English historian Edward Gibbon wrote: "The Caliph Ali displayed a superior character of valor and humanity. His troops were strictly enjoined to wait the first onset of the enemy, to spare their flying brethren, and to respect the bodies of the dead, and the chastity of the female captives. The ranks of the Syrians were broken by the charge of the hero, who was mounted on a piebald horse, and wielded with irresistible force his ponderous and two edged sword." Of the estimated casualties, Ali's forces lost 25,000, while Maliyah’s forces lost 45,000. Appalled by the carnage, Ali sent a message to Muawiya and challenged him to single combat, saying that whoever won should be the Caliph. In Gibbon's words, "Ali generously proposed to save the blood of the Muslims by a single combat; but his trembling rival declined the challenge as a sentence of inevitable death. After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as Layla al-hair the night of clamor Maliyah’s army was on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-As advised Maliyah to have his soldiers hoist mushed (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Quran, or complete copies of it on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army Ali saw through the stratagem, but only a minority wanted to pursue the fight. The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be Caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the Kuban’s caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Quays and some others rejected Ali's nominees, 'Abdi Allah ibn 'Abbas and Malik al-Attar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ashlar, for his neutrality. Finally, Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Amr ibn al-As was appointed by Maliyah as an arbitrator. Seven months later the two arbitrators met at Adhruh about 10 miles North West of Man in Jordon in February 658. Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Atari that both Ali and Maliyah should step down and a new Caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision which had lowered the Caliph to the status of the rebellious Maliyah. Ali was therefore outwitted by Maliyah and Amr ibn al-As. Ali refused to accept the verdict and found himself technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan "arbitration belongs to God alone. This group came to be known as the Kharijites those who leave. They considered everyone to be their enemy. In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of Narayan. The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of Ali's coalition and some have opined that this was Maliyah’s intention. In the following years Maliyah’s army occupied many cities of Iraq, which Ali's governors could not prevent, and people did not support him to fight with them. Maliyah overpowered Egypt, Hejaz, Yemen and other areas. In the last year of Ali's caliphate, the mood in Kura and Basra changed in his favor as Maliyah’s vicious behavior in the war revealed the nature of his reign. However, the people's attitude toward Ali differed deeply. Just a small minority of them believed that Ali was the best Muslim after Muhammad and the only one entitled to rule them, while the majority supported him due to their distrust and opposition to Maliyah. What shows Ali's policies and ideas of governing is his instruction to Malik al-Attar, when appointed by him as governor of Egypt. This instruction, which is considered by many Muslims and even non-Muslims as the ideal constitution for Islamic governance, involved detailed description of duties and rights of the ruler and various functionaries of the state and the main classes of society at that time. Ali wrote in his instruction to Malik al-Attar: Infuse your heart with mercy, love and kindness for your subjects. Be not in face of them a voracious animal, counting them as easy prey, for they are of two kinds: either they are your brothers in religion or your equals in creation. Error catches them unaware, deficiencies overcome them, (evil deeds) are committed by them intentionally and by mistake. So grant them your pardon and your forgiveness to the same extent that you hope God will grant you His pardon and His forgiveness. For you are above them, and he who appointed you is above you, and God is above him who appointed you. God has sought from you the fulfillment of their requirements and He is trying you with them. Since the majority of Ali's subjects were nomads and peasants, he was concerned with agriculture. He instructed to Malik to give more attention to development of the land than to the collection of the tax, because tax can only be obtained by the development of the land and whoever demands tax without developing the land ruins the country and destroys the people. Death On the 19th of Ramadan, while praying in the Great Mosque of Kura, Ali was attacked by the Khawaja Abdi-al-Rahman ibn Milam. He was wounded by ibn Milam’s poison-coated sword while prostrating in the Fajr prayer. Ali ordered his sons not to attack the Kharijites, instead stipulating that if he survived, ibn Milam would be pardoned whereas if he died, ibn Milam should be given only one equal hit (regardless of whether or not he died from the hit Ali died a few days later on January 31, 661 21 Ramadan 40 A.H. Hasan fulfilled Qisas and gave equal punishment to ibn Milam upon Ali's death. According to Al-Shaikh Al-Muffin, Ali did not want his grave to be desecrated by his enemies and consequently asked his friends and family to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite was revealed later during the Abbasid caliphate by Imam Jaffa al-Sadie, his descendant and the sixth Shia Imam. Most Shias accept that Ali is buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali in the Imam Ali Mosque at what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine called Masjid Ali. However another story, usually maintained by some Afghans, notes that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city of Maar-E-Sharif at the famous Blue Mosque or Raze-e-Sharif. Aftermath After Ali's death, Kofi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son Hasan without dispute, as Ali on many occasions had declared that just People of the House of Muhammad were entitled to rule the Muslim community.[115] At this time, Maliyah held both the Levant and Egypt and, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim Empire, had declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq, the seat of Hasan's caliphate. War ensued during which Maliyah gradually subverted the generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of money and deceiving promises until the army rebelled against him. Finally, Hasan was forced to make peace and to yield the caliphate to Maliyah. In this way Maliyah captured the Islamic caliphate and in every way possible placed the severest pressure upon Ali's family and his Shia. Regular public cursing of Imam Ali in the congregational prayers remained a vital institution which was not abolished until 60 years later by Umar ibn Abdi al-Aziz. Maliyah also established the Umayyad caliphate which was a centralized monarchy.Made lung writes
Umayyad highhandedness, misrule and repression were gradually to turn the minority of Ali's admirers into a majority. In the memory of later generations Ali became the ideal Commander of the Faithful. In face of the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in Islam as God's Vice-regents on earth, and in view of Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive government, and vindictive retribution, they came to appreciate his [Ali's] honesty, his unbending devotion to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his equal treatment of all his supporters, and his generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies. Knowledge Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. A numerous range of disciplines from theology and exegesis to calligraphy and numerology, from law and mysticism to Arabic grammar and Rhetoric are regarded as having been first adumbrated by Ali According to a Hadith which is narrated by Shia and Sufis, Muhammad told about him "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate Muslims regard Ali as a major authority on Islam. Ali himself gives this testimony: Not a single verse of the Quran descended upon was revealed to the Messenger of God which he did not proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me as to its tarsier the literal explanation and the tail the spiritual exegesis, the Nasik the verse which abrogates) and the mansukh the abrogated verse, the Mahakam and the mutashabih the fixed and the ambiguous the particular and the general. According to Syed Hussein Nasr, Ali is credited with having established Islamic theology and his quotations contain the first rational proofs among Muslims of the Unity of God. Ibn Abe al-Hasid has quoted As for theosophy and dealing with matters of divinity, it was not an Arab art. Nothing of the sort had been circulated among their distinguished figures or those of lower ranks. This art was the exclusive preserve of Greece, whose sages were its only expounders. The first one among Arabs to deal with it was Ali. In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mullah Sadri and his followers, like Allah Tabatabaei, Ali's sayings and sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadri’s school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam. According to Henry Corbin, the Tahj al-Baraga may be regarded as one of the most important sources of doctrines professed by Shia thinkers, especially after 1500AD. Its influence can be sensed in the logical co-ordination of terms, the deduction of correct conclusions, and the creation of certain technical terms in Arabic which entered the literary and philosophical language independently of the translation into Arabic of Greek texts. Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of Arabic grammar and rhetoric. Numerous short sayings of Ali have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They have also become the basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such as 'Abdi al-Hamid ibn Yahiya al-'Amira pointed to the unparalleled eloquence of Ali's sermons and sayings, as did al-Jahir in the following century. Even staffs in the Divan of Umayyad recited Ali's sermons to improve their eloquence. Of course, Peak of Eloquence Tahj al-Baraga is an extract of Ali's quotations from a literal viewpoint as its compiler mentioned in the preface, while there are many other quotations, prayers Dumas sermons and letters in other literal, historic and religious books. In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as jar, Islamic numerology, and the science of the symbolic significance of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by Ali through his having studied the texts of al-Jafri and al-Jamie.work in Islam
Ali which is compiled by ash-Sharif ram-raid d. 1015 Reza Shah Kami states Despite ongoing questions about the authenticity of the text, recent scholarship suggests that most of the material in it can in fact be attributed to Ali" and in support of this he makes reference to an article by Mocha Jabil This book has a prominent position in Arabic literature. It is also considered an important intellectual, political and religious work in Islam. Masada Tahj al-Baraga we asaniduh, written by al-Sayyid ‘Abd al-Zahra' al-Husayni al-Khatib, introduces some of these sources. Also, Tahj al-sa'adah fi mustarded Tahj al-balaghah by Muhammad Blair al-Mahmud represents all of Ali's extant speeches, sermons, decrees, epistles, prayers, and sayings that have been collected. It includes the Tahj al-beluga and other discourses which were not incorporated by ash-Sharif ram-raid or were not available to him. Apparently, except for some of the aphorisms, the original sources of all the contents of the Tahj al-beluga have been determined. There are several Comments on the Peak of Eloquence by Sunnis and Shias such as Comments of Ibn Abe al-Hasid and Guar al-Hickam we Durer al-Kulim Exalted aphorisms and Pearls of Speech) which is compiled by Abdi al-Wahid Amide d. 1116 consists of over ten thousands short sayings of Ali. Nuchal al-Assar van Maharini al-Assar, Ali's sermons which have compiled by Ali ibn Muhammad Tabard Martini. Divan-I Ali ibn Abu Talia poems which are attributed to Ali ibn Abu Talia The first three Shiite Imams: Ali with his sons Hasan and Husain. Ali initially married Fatimah, who was his most beloved wife. After she died, he got married again. He had four children with Fatimah, Hasan ibn Ali, Husain ibn Ali, Zayne bint Ali and Umm Ketchum bint Ali. His other well-known sons were al-Abbas in Ali, born to Fatima bite Hiram Um al-Benin and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah was Ali's son from another wife from Haifa clan of Central Arabia named Chawla bent Jaffa. Hasan, born in 625 AD, was the second Shia Imam and he also occupied the outward function of caliph for about six months. In the year 50 A.H., he was poisoned and killed by a member of his own household who, as has been accounted by historians, had been Husain, born in 626 AD, was the third Shia Imam. He lived under severe conditions of suppression and persecution by Mu'awiyah. On the tenth day of Muharram, of the year 680, he lined up before the army of the caliph with his small band of followers and nearly all of them were killed in the Battle of Karbala. The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashore and it is a day of mourning and religious observance for Shia Muslims In this battle some of Ali’s other sons was killed. Al-Tabard has mentioned their names in his history: Al-Abbas ibn Ali, the holder of Husain’s standard Jaffa Abdullah and Othman, the four sons born to Fatima bite Hiram; Muhammad and Abu Bark. The death of the last one is doubtful. Some historians have added the names of Ali are other sons who were killed in Karbala, including Ibrahim, Umar and Abdullah ibn al-Assar. His daughter Zayne—who was in Karbala—was captured by Yazd’s army and later played a great role in revealing what happened to Husain and his followers. Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as sheriffs, seeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, Sharif meaning 'noble' and stayed or stayed meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shia, though the Shias place much more emphasis and value on the distinction. Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as Ali In Muslim culture, Ali is respected for his courage, knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad, equal treatment of all Muslims and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies, and therefore is central to mystical traditions in Islam such as Sufism. Ali retains his stature as an authority on Quartic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence and religious thought Ali holds a high position in almost all Sufi orders which trace their lineage through him to Muhammad. Ali's influence has been important throughout Islamic history. The Shia regard Ali as the most important figure after Muhammad According to them, Muhammad suggested on various occasions during his lifetime that Ali should be the leader of Muslims after his death. This is supported by numerous Hadiths which have been narrated by Shias, including Hadith of the pond of Kham, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper Hadith of the Cloak, Hadith of position, Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and Hadith of the Twelve Successors. According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only ruled over the community in justice, but also interpreted the Sharia Law and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was regarded as being free from error and sin infallible and appointed by God by divine decree mass through Muhammad It is believed in Twelve and Ismailia Shi’a Islam that ‘all, divine wisdom, was the source of the souls of the Prophets and Imams and gave them esoteric knowledge called ḥikmah and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees. Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation, he had a close relationship with God, through which God guides him, and the Imam in turn guides the people. His words and deeds are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result it is a source of sharia law. Shia pilgrims usually go to Mashhad Ali in Najaf for Ziyarat pray there and read Ziyarat Amin Allah or other Ziyaratnamehs.
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Unman ibn Afghan
Unman ibn Afghan 577 20 June 656 was one of the companions of Islamic prophet Muhammad. He played a major role in early Islamic history as the third of the Sunni Rash dun or Rightly Guided Caliphs.Uthman was born into the Umayyad clan of Mecca a powerful family of the Quash tribe. He was a companion of Muhammad who assumed the role of leader caliph of the Muslim Empire at the age of 65 following Umar ibn al Kata. Under his leadership Uthman was born in Ta’if, which is situated on a hill, and the presumptions that he was born during the summer months, since wealthy McCann’s usually spent the hot summers in the cooler climate of Ta’if. He was born into the wealthy Umayyad Bane Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca, seven years after Muhammad. Othman’s father, Affan, died young while travelling abroad but left a large inheritance to Uthman. Uthman followed the same profession as his father, and his business flourished, making him one of the richest men among the Qurayshi tribe. the empire expanded into Fars in 650 present day Iran some areas of Khorana present day Afghanistan in 651 and the conquest of Armenia was begun in the 640s Some of Uthman's notable achievements were the economic reforms he introduced, and the compilation of the Qur'an into the unified, authoritative text that is known today. Uthman was born in Ta if which is situated on a hill, and the presumption is that he was born during the summer months since wealthy McCann’s usually spent the hot summers in the cooler climate of Ta’if. He was born into the wealthy Umayyad Bane Umayyad clan of the Quays tribe of Mecca, seven years after Muhammad. Uthman's father, Affan, died young while travelling abroad but left a large inheritance to Uthman. Uthman followed the same profession as his father, and his business flourished, making him one of the richest men among the Qurayshi tribe
Uthman ibn Affan r. 644,656
The Umayyad Caliphate trans. AlḪilāfa al umawiyya was the second of the four major Islamic caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was centered on the Umayyad al Umawiyyun or Bane Umayyad Sons of Umayyad hailing from Mecca. The Umayyad family had first come to power under the third Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan r. 644,656 but the Umayyad regime was founded by Muawiya ibn Abe Sofia, long-time governor of Syria after the end of the First Muslim Civil War in 661 CE-41 AH. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sind, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula Al-Andalusia into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.79 million square miles 15,000,000 km making it the largest empire the world had yet seen, and the fifth largest ever to exist. At the time, the Umayyad taxation and administrative practice were perceived as unjust by some Muslims. While the non-Muslim population had autonomy, their judicial matters were dealt with in accordance with their own laws and by their own religious heads or their appointees. They paid a poll tax for policing to the central state. Muhammad had stated explicitly during his lifetime that each religious minority should be allowed to practice its own religion and govern itself and the policy had on the whole continued The Welfare state for both the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor started by Omar had also continued. Muawiya's wife Maysum Yazid's mother was also a Christian. The relations between the Muslims and the Christians in the state were good. The Umayyads were involved in frequent battles with the Christian Byzantines without being concerned with protecting their rear in Syria which had remained largely Christian like many other parts of the empire. Prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious tolerance that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, especially in Syria. This policy also boosted his popularity and solidified Syria as his power base. The rivalries between the Arab tribes had caused unrest in the provinces outside Syria, most notably in the Second Muslim Civil War of 680–692 CE and the Berber Revolt of 740–743 CE. During the Second Civil War, leadership of the Umayyad clan shifted from the Sufyanid branch of the family to the Marwan branch. As the constant campaigning exhausted the resources and manpower of the state, the Umayyad’s, weakened by the Third Muslim Civil War of 744–747 CE, were finally toppled by the Abbasid Revolution in 750 CE/132 AH. A branch of the family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalusia, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the Fiona of al-Andalusia. According to tradition, the Umayyad family also known as the Bane Bad-Shams and Muhammad both descended from a common ancestor, Bad Manna ibn Qusai and they are originally from the city of Mecca. Muhammad descended from Abd Manna via his son has him, while the Umayyad’s descended from Bad Manna via a different son, Bad-Shams, whose son was Umayyad. The two families are therefore considered to be different clans those of has him and of Umayyad, respectively) of the same tribe (that of the Quash. However Muslim Shia historians point out that Umayyad was an adopted son of Bad Shams so he was not a blood relative of Bad Manna ibn Qusai. Umayyad was later discarded from the noble family While the Umayyad’s and the Hashemite’s may have had bitterness between the two clans before Muhammad, the rivalry turned into a severe case of tribal animosity after the Battle of Bard. The battle saw three top leaders of the Umayyad clan Tuba ibn Rebekah, Walled ibn Utah and Shay bah killed by Hashemite’s Ali, Hama ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and Ubaydah ibn al-Hadith in a three-on-three melee. This fueled the opposition of Abu Sofia ibn Harb, the grandson of Umayya, to Muhammad and to Islam. Abu Sofia sought to exterminate the adherents of the new religion by waging another battle with Muslims based in Medina only a year after the Battle of Bard. He did this to avenge the defeat at Bard. The Battle of Uhud is generally believed by scholars to be the first defeat for the Muslims, as they had incurred greater losses than the McCann’s. After the battle, Abu Sofia’s wife Hind, who was also the daughter of Tuba ibn Rebekah, is reported to have cut open the corpse of Hama, taking out his liver which she then attempted to eat. Within five years after his defeat in the Battle of Ehud however, Muhammad took control of Mecca and announced a general amnesty for all. Abu Sofia and his wife Hind embraced Islam on the eve of the conquest of Mecca, as did their son the future caliph Muawiyah
Most historians consider Caliph Muawiyah 661 80to have been the second ruler of the Umayyad dynasty, even though he was the first to assert the Umayyad’s' right to rule on a dynastic principle. It was really the caliphate of Othman Ibn Afghan 644-656 a member of Umayyad clan himself that witnessed the revival and then the ascendancy of the Umayyad clan to the corridors of power. Othman placed some of the trusted members of his clan at prominent and strong positions throughout the state. Most notable was the appointment of Marwan ibn al Hakim, Othman’s first cousin, as his top advisor, which created a stir amongst the Hashemite companions of Muhammad, as Marwan along with his father Al-Hakim ibn Abe al-'As had been permanently exiled from Medina by Muhammad during his lifetime. Othman also appointed Walled ibn Unbar, Othman’s half-brother, as the governor of Kufa, who was accused, by Hash mites, of leading prayer while under the influence of alcohol.[15] Othman also consolidated Muawiyah's governorship of Syria by granting him control over a larger area and appointed his foster brother Abdullah ibn Sad as the Governor of Egypt. However, since Othman never named an heir, he cannot be considered the founder of a dynasty. In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor Abu Obadiah ibn al-Jar rah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people. To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah I set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean. Muawiyah I was a very successful governor and built up a very loyal and disciplined army from the old Roman Syrian army. He also befriended Arm ibn al-As who had conquered Egypt but was removed by Othman in al-Afghan.
Quran and Muhammad
The Quran and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the The Farewell Sermon. Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area. Previously, the second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt that a governor or the commander was becoming attracted to wealth, he had him removed from his position. Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they may get away from the worship of God and become attracted to wealth and start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties. As Othman ibn al-Afghan became very old, Marwan I a relative of Muawiyah I slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. In 656, Muhammad ibn Abe Bark the son of Abu Bark and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abe Talia and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadie showed some Egyptians, the house of Othman ibn al-Afghan. Later the Egyptians ended up killing after the assassination of Othman in 656, Ali, a member of the Quraysh tribe and the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was elected as the caliph. He soon met with resistance from several factions, owing to his relative political inexperience. Ali moved his capital from Medina to Kura. The resulting conflict, which lasted from 656 until 661, is known as the First Fiona civil war. Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Othman ibn al-Afghan and Marwan I wanted the culprits arrested. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict. Aisha, the wife of Muhammad, and Talhah and Al-Sugary, two of the companions of Muhammad when to Basra to tell Ali to arrest the culprits who murdered Othman. Marwan I and other people who wanted conflict manipulated everyone to fight. The two sides clashed at the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali won a decisive victory.Following this battle, Ali fought a battle against Muawiyah, known as the Battle of Stiffen. The battle was stopped before either side had achieved victory, or the two parties agreed to arbitrate their dispute. After the battle Arm ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah and an arbitrator and Ali appointed Abu Musa Atari. Seven months later the two arbitrators met at Adhere about 10 miles north west of Man in Jordon in February 658. Arm ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Atari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and new Caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision which had lowered the Caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah I. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Arm. Ali refused to accept the verdict and found himself technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire the Kharijites. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan, arbitration belongs to God alone. This group came to be known as the Kharijites those who leave. In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Ali was assassinated in 661, by a Kharijite partisan. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Has an ibn Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and as a peacemaker, the fourth Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and the Second Imam for the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the Hasan-Muawiya treaty, Has an ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death he does not establish a dynasty. This brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Has an ibn Ali was also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following this, Mu'awiyah broke the conditions of the agreement and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus. After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the Second Fitna. After making everyone else fight, the Umayyad dynasty later fell into the hands of Marwan I who was also an Umayyad. Syria would remain the base of Umayyad power until the end of the dynasty in 750. However, this Dynasty became reborn in Cordoba Al Andalusia, today's Portugal and Spain in the form of an Emirate and then a Caliphate, lasting until 1031 AD. Muslim rule continued in Iberia for another 500 years in several forms: Taigas, Berber kingdoms, and under the Kingdom of Granada until the 16th century. In the year 712 Muhammad bin Qasim, an Umayyad general sailed from the chalet into Sindh in Pakistan and conquered both the Sindh and the Punjab regions along the Indus River. The conquest of Sindh and Punjab, in modern day Pakistan, although costly, were major gains for the Umayyad Caliphate. However, further gains were halted by Hindu Kingdoms in India in the battle of Rajasthan. The Arabs tried to invade India but they were defeated by the north Indian king Nagabhata of the Prather Dynasty and by the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya of the Chalky dynasty in the early 8th century. After this the Arab chroniclers admit that the Caliph Mahdi “gave up the project of conquering any part of India. During the later period of its existence and particularly from 1031 AD under the Ta'ifa system of Islamic Emirates in the southern half of Iberia, the Emirate, Sultanate of Granada maintained its independence largely due to the payment of Tributes to the northern Christian Kingdoms which began to gradually expand south at its expense from 1031. Muslim rule in Iberia came to an end on January 2, 1492 with the conquest of the Naiad kingdom of Granada. The last Muslim ruler of Granada, Muhammad. Better known as Boabdil, surrendered his kingdom to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the Catholic Monarchs, los Reyes Catholicons. Muawiyah's personal dynasty, the Sufyanids descendants of Abu Sufyan reigned from 661 to 684, until his grandson Muawiya II. The reign of Muawiyah I was marked by internal security and external expansion. On the internal front, only one major rebellion is recorded, that of Hour ibn Aid in Kura. Hour ibn Aid supported the claims of the descendants of Ali to Muawiyah also encouraged peaceful coexistence with the Christian communities of Syria, granting his reign with "peace and prosperity for Christians and Arabs alike",[43] and one of his closest advisers was Serum, the father of John of Damascus. At the same time, he waged unceasing war against the Byzantine Roman Empire. During his reign, Rhodes and Crete were occupied, and several assaults were launched against Constantinople. After their failure, and faced with a large-scale Christian uprising in the form of the Mediates, Muawiyah concluded a peace with Byzantium. Muawiyah also oversaw military expansion in North Africa the foundation of Kairouan and in Central Asia Following Muawiyah's death in 680 he was succeeded by his son, Yazid The hereditary accession of Yazd was opposed by a number of prominent Muslims, most notably Bad-Allah ibn al-Sugary, son of one of the companions of Muhammad, and Husain ibn Ali, grandson of Muhammad and younger son of Ali. The resulting conflict is known as the Second Fiona.
In 680 Ibn al-Sugary
In 680 Ibn al-Sugary fled Medina for Mecca. Hearing about Husain’s opposition to Yazd I, the people of Kura sent to Husain asking him to take over with their support. Al-Husain sent his cousin Muslim bin Agnail to verify if they would rally behind him. When the news reached Yazd I, he sent Boyd-Allah bin Zeya, ruler of Basra, with the instruction to prevent the people of Kura of rallying behind Al-Husain. Boyd-Allah bin Zeya managed to disperse the crowd who gathered around Muslim bin Agnail and captured Muslim bin Agnail. Realizing Boyd-Allah bin Zeya was instructed to prevent Husain from establishing support in Kura; Muslim bin Agnail requested a message to be sent to Husain to prevent his immigration to Kura. The request was denied and Boyd-Allah bin Zeya killed Muslim bin Agnail. While In al-Sugary would stay in Mecca until his death, Husain decided to travel on to Kura with his family unbeknownst to the lack of support in Kura. Husain and his family were intercepted by Yazd I forces led by Amur bin Sad, Shamir bin This Al-Johan, and Husain bin Tami who fought Al-Husain and his male family members until they were killed. There were 200 people in Husain’s caravan, many of whom were women including his sisters, wives and daughters and children. The women and children from Husain’s camp were taken as prisoners of war and led back to Damascus to be presented to Yazd I. They remained imprisoned until public opinion turned against him as word of Husain’s death and his family's capture spread. They were then granted passage back to Medina. The sole adult male survivor from the caravan was Ali inb Husain who was with fever to too ill to fight when the caravan was attacked.
Following the death of Husain, In al-Sugary, although remaining in Mecca, was associated with two opposition movements, one centered in Medina and the other around Kharijites in Basra and Arabia. Because Medina had been home to Muhammad and his family, including Husain, word of his death and the imprisonment of his family led to a large opposition movement. In 683, Yazd dispatched an army to subdue both movements. The army suppressed the Medinas opposition at the Battle of al-Harrah the Grand Mosque in Medina was severely damaged and widespread pillaging caused deep-seated dissent. Yazd’s army continued on and laid siege to Mecca. At some point during the siege, the Kaibab was badly damaged in a fire. The destruction of the Kaibab and Grand Mosque became a major cause for censure of the Umayyad’s in later histories of the period.Yazid died while the siege was still in progress, and the Umayyad army returned to Damascus, leaving Ibn al-Zubayr in control of Mecca. Yazid's son Muawiya 683 84initially succeeded him but seems to have never been recognized as caliph outside of Syria. Two factions developed within Syria: the Confederation of Qays, who supported Ibn al-Sugary, and the Quad’s, who supported Marwan, a descendant of Umayyad via Wail Ibn Umayyah. The partisans of Marwan triumphed at a battle at Mar Rahit, near Damascus, in 684 and Marwan became caliph shortly thereafter.
Marwan was succeeded by his son, Abd al-Malik 685,705 who reconsolidated Umayyad control of the caliphate. The early reign of Abd al Malik was marked by the revolt of Al-Mukhtar, which was based in Kura. Al Mukhtar hoped to elevate Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, another son of Ali to the caliphate, although Ibn al-Hanafiyyah himself may have had no connection to the revolt. The troops of al-Mukhtar engaged in battles both with the Umayyads, in 686 at the river Khazir near Mosul: an Umayyad defeat, and with Ibn al-Zubayr in 687 at which time the revolt of al Mehta was crushed. In 691 Umayyad troops conquered Iraq, and in 692 the same army captured Mecca. Ibn al-Zubayr was killed in the attack. The second major event of the early reign of Bad al-Malik was the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Although the chronology remains somewhat uncertain, the building seems to have been completed in 692 which means that it was under construction during the conflict with Ibn al-Zubayr. This had led some historians both medieval and modern, to suggest that the Dome of the Rock was built to rival the Kaibab, which was under the control of Ibn al Zubayr as a destination for pilgrimage.Abd al-Malik is credited with centralizing the administration of the Caliphate and with establishing Arabic as its official language. He also introduced a uniquely Muslim coinage, marked by its aniconic decoration, which supplanted the Byzantine and Sasanian coins that had previously been in use. Abd al-Malik also recommenced offensive warfare against Byzantium, defeating the Byzantines at Sebastopolis and recovering control over Armenia and Caucasian Iberia.Following Abd al-Malik's death, his son, Al-Walled 705,15became caliph. Al-Walled was also active as a builder, sponsoring the construction of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina and the Great Mosque of Damascus.A major figure during the reigns of both al-Walled and Abd al-Malik was the Umayyad governor of Iraq, Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef. Many Iraqis remained resistant to Umayyad rule, and al-Hajjaj imported Syrian troops to maintain order, whom he housed in a new garrison town, Wasit. These troops became crucial in the suppression of a revolt led by an Iraqi general, Ibn al-Ash'ath, in the early eighth century.Al-Walid was succeeded by his brother, Sulayman 715-17whose reign was dominated by a protracted siege of Constantinople. The failure of the siege marked the end of serious Arab ambitions against the Byzantine capital. However, the first two decades of the eighth century witnessed the continuing expansion of the Caliphate, which pushed into the Iberian Peninsula in the west, and into Transoxiana and northern India in the east.Sulayman was succeeded by his cousin, Umar ibn Abd al Aziz 717,20 whose position among the Umayyad caliphs is somewhat unique. He is the only Umayyad ruler to have been recognized by subsequent Islamic tradition as a genuine caliph and not merely as a worldly king . Umar is honored for his attempt to resolve the fiscal problems attendant upon conversion to Islam. During the Umayyad period, the majority of people living within the caliphate were not Muslim, but Christian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, or otherwise. These religious communities were not forced to convert to Islam, but were subject to a tax which was not imposed upon Muslims. This situation may actually have made widespread conversion to Islam undesirable from the point of view of state revenue, and there are reports that provincial governors actively discouraged such conversions. It is not clear how Umar attempted to resolve this situation, but the sources portray him as having insisted on like treatment of Arab and non-Arab Muslims and on the removal of obstacles to the conversion of non-Arabs to Islam.
After the death of Umar, another son of Abd al-Malik, Yazid 720-24 became caliph. Yazid is best known for his iconoclastic edict which ordered the destruction of Christian images within the territory of the Caliphate. In 720, another major revolt arose in Iraq, this time led by Yazid ibn al-Muhallab. The final son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph was Hisham 724-43 whose long and eventful reign was above all marked by the curtailment of military expansion. Hisham established his court at Resafa in northern Syria, which was closer to the Byzantine border than Damascus, and resumed hostilities against the Byzantines, which had lapsed following the failure of the last siege of Constantinople. The new campaigns resulted in a number of successful raids into Hisham's reign furthermore witnessed the end of expansion in the west, following the defeat of the Arab army by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in 732. In 739 a major Berber Revolt broke out in North Africa, which was subdued only with difficulty. In the Caucasus, the confrontation with the Khazars peaked under Hisham: the Arabs established Derbent as a major military base and launched several invasions of the northern Caucasus, but failed to subdue the nomadic Khazars. The conflict was arduous and bloody, and the Arab army even suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Marj Ardabil in 730. Marwan ibn Muhammad, the future Marwan finally ended the war in 737 with a massive invasion that is reported to have reached as far as the Volga, but the Khazars remained unsubdued. Hisham suffered still worse defeats in the east, where his armies attempted to subdue both Tokharistan with its center at Balkh and Transoxiana with its center at Samarkand. Both areas had already been partially conquered but remained difficult to govern.
Once againa particular difficulty concerned the question of the conversion of non-Arabs especially the Sogdians of Transoxiana. Following the Umayyad defeat in the Day of Thirst in 724 Ashras ibn 'Abd Allah al Sulami governor of Khurasan, promised tax relief to those Sogdians who converted to Islam, but went back on his offer when it proved too popular and threatened to reduce tax revenues. Discontent among the Khurasani Arabs rose sharply after the losses suffered in the Battle of the Defile in 731 and in 734 al-Harith ibn Surayj led a revolt that received broad backing from Arabs and natives alike, capturing Balkh but failing to take Merv. After this defeat al-Harith's movement seems to have been dissolved, but the problem of the rights of non-Arab Muslims would continue to plague the Umayyads.Fresco from the palace of Qusayr Amra, possibly built by Al-Walled depicting a concubine. Umayyad harems maintained concubines trained in vocal arts and dance. Hisham was succeeded by Al-Walled 743-44 the son of Yazid Al Walled is reported to have been more interested in earthly pleasures than in religion, a reputation that may be confirmed by the decoration of the so-called desert palaces including Qusayr Amra and Khirbat al- that have been attributed to him. He quickly attracted the enmity of many, both by executing a number of those who had opposed his accession, and by persecuting the Qadariyya.
In 744 Yazid
Marwan immediately moved the capital north to Harran in present-day Turkey. A rebellion soon broke out in Syria perhaps due to resentment over the relocation of the capital and in 746 Marwan razed the walls of Homs and Damascus in retaliation. Marwan also faced significant opposition from Kharijites in Iraq and Iran who put forth first Dahhak ibn Qays and then Abu Dulaf as rival caliphs. In 747 Marwan managed to reestablish control of Iraq but by this time a more serious threat had arisen in Khorasan. The Hashimiyya movement a sub-sect of the Kaysanites Shia led by the Abbasid family, overthrew the Umayyad caliphate. The Abbasids were members of the Hashim clan rivals of the Umayyads but the word Hashimiyya seems to refer specifically to Abu Hashim a grandson of Ali and son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. According to certain traditions, Abu Hashim died in 717 in Humeima in the house of Muhammad ibn Ali, the head of the Abbasid family and before dying named Muhammad ibn Ali as his successor. This tradition allowed the Abbasids to rally the supporters of the failed revolt of Mukhtar, who had represented themselves as the supporters of Muhammad ibn al Hanafiyya. Beginning around 719 Hashimiyya missions began to seek adherents in Khurasan. Their campaign was framed as one of proselytism dawah.
They sought support for a member of the family of Muhammad, without making explicit mention of the Abbasids. These missions met with success both among Arabs and non Arabs masala although the latter may have played a particularly important role in the growth of the movement. Around 746 Abu Muslim assumed leadership of the Hashimiyya in Kherson. In 747he successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule which was carried out under the sign of the black flag. He soon established control of Kherson, expelling its Umayyad governorNasr ibn Sawyer and dispatched an army westwards. Kura fell to the Hashimiyya in 749, the last Umayyad stronghold in Iraq, Waist, was placed under siege and in November of the same year Abu al-Abbas was recognized as the new caliph in the mosque at Kura At this point Marwan mobilized his troops from Harran and advanced toward Iraq. In January 750 the two forces met in the Battle of the Sab, and the Umayyad’s were defeated. Damascus fell to the Abbasids in April, and in August Marwan was killed in Egypt. The victors desecrated the tombs of the Umayyad’s in Syria, sparing only that of Umar II, and most of the remaining members of the Umayyad family were tracked down and killed. When Abbasids declared amnesty for members of the Umayyad family, eighty gathered to receive pardons and all were massacred. One grandson of His ham, Bad ar-Rahman I survived and established a kingdom in Al Andalusia Moorish Iberia proclaiming his family to be the Umayyad Caliphate revived. Private-Orton argues that the reasons for the decline of the Umayyad’s were the rapid expansion of Islam. During Umayyad period, mass conversions brought PersiansBerbers, Copts and Aramaic’s to Islam. These masalas clients were often better educated and more civilized than their Arab masters. The new converts, on the basis of equality of all Muslims, transformed the political landscape. Private-Orton also argues that the feud between Syria and Iraq further weakened the empire. One of Muawiya's first tasks was to create a stable administration for the empire. He followed the main ideas of the Byzantine Empire which had ruled the same region previously, and had three main governmental branches: political and military affairs; tax collection and religious administration. Each of these was further subdivided into more branches offices, and departments. Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the khalifah. The governor was in charge of the religious officials, army leaders, police, and civil administrators in his province. Local expenses were paid for by taxes coming from that province, with the remainder each year being sent to the central government in Damascus. As the central power of the Umayyad rulers waned in the later years of the dynasty, some governors neglected to send the extra tax revenue to Damascus and created great personal fortunes. As the empire grew, the number of qualified Arab workers was too small to keep up with the rapid expansion of the empire. Therefore, Muawiya allowed many of the local government workers in conquered provinces to keep their jobs under the new Umayyad government. Thus, much of the local government's work was recorded in Greek, Coptic, and Persian. It was only during the reign of Abd al-Malik that government work began to be regularly recorded in Arabic.
Islamic objects dated 743
A coin weight from the Umayyad Dynasty dated 743, made of glass. One Of the oldest Islamic objects in an American museum, the Walters Art Museum. Golden coin of the Umayyad Caliphate, Iran. The Byzantine and Sassanid Empires relied on money economies before the Muslim conquest, and that system remained in effect during the Umayyad period. Pre-existing coins remained in use, but with phrases from the Quran stamped on them. In addition to this, the Umayyad government began to mint its own coins in Damascus which were similar to pre-existing coins. The first coins minted by a Muslim government in history. Gold coins were called dinars while silver coins were called dirhams. The Central Board of Revenue administered the entire finance of the empire, it also imposed and collected taxes and disbursed revenue. A regular Board of Correspondence was established under the Umayyad’s. It issued state missives and circulars to the Central and Provincial Officers. It co-ordinated the work of all Boards and dealt with all correspondence as the chief secretariat. In order to check forgery Divan al-Khatami Bureau of Registry a kind of state chancellery was instituted by Mu'awiyah. It used to make and preserve a copy of each official document before sealing and dispatching the original to its destination. Thus in the course of time a state archive developed in Damascus by the Umayyad’s under Bad al-Malik. This department survived till the middle of the Abbasid period. Mu'awiyah introduced postal service. Abd al-Malik extended it throughout his empire and Walled made full use of it. The Umayyad Caliph Bad al-Malik developed a regular postal service. Umar bin Abdul-Aziz developed it further by building caravanserais at stages along the Kherson highway. Relays of horses were used for the conveyance of dispatches between the caliph and his agents and officials posted in the provinces. The main highways were divided into stages of 12 miles 19 km each and each stage had horses, donkeys or camels ready to carry the post. Primarily the service met the needs of Government officials but travellers and their important dispatches were also benefitted by the system. For swift transport of troops also the postal carriages were used. They were able to carry fifty to a hundred men at a time. Under Governor Yusuf bin Umar, the postal department of Iraq cost 4,000,000 dirhams a year. In the early period of Islam justice was administered by Muhammad and the orthodox Caliphs in person. After the expansion of the Islamic State Umar al Faro had to separate judiciary from the general administration and appointed the first quid in Egypt as early as 23H/643AD. After 661AD a series of judges succeeded one after another in Egypt under the Umayyad Caliphs, His ham and Walled. The Divan of Umar assigning annuities to all Arabs and to the Muslim soldiers of other races underwent a change in the hands of the Umayyad s. The Umayyad’s meddled with the register and the recipients regarded pensions as the subsistence allowance even without being in active service. His ham reformed it and paid only to those who participated in battle. On the pattern of the Byzantine system the Umayyad’s reformed their army organization in general and divided it into five corps: the center, two wings vanguards and rearguards while on March or in a battle field following the same formation. Marwan 740-50 abandoned the old division and introduced Kudus cohort a small compact body. The Umayyad troops were divided into three division’s infantry cavalry and artillery. Arab troops were dressed and armed in Greek fashion. The Umayyad cavalry used plain and round saddles. The artillery used armada ballista manganic the mangoes and kabbalah or kibosh the battering ram. The heavy engines, siege machines and baggage were carried on camels behind the army.
Ivory circa 8th century discovered in the Abbasid homestead in Humeima Jordan. The style indicates an origin in northeastern Iran, the base of Hashimiyya military power. The Muslim Arabs were at the top of the society, and saw it as their duty to rule over the conquered areas. Despite the fact that Islam teaches the equality of all Muslims, the Arab Muslims held themselves in higher esteem than Muslim non-Arabs and generally did not mix with other Muslims. The inequality of Muslims in the empire led to social unrest. As Islam spread, more and more of the Muslim population was constituted of non-Arabs. This caused tension as the new converts were not given the same rights as Muslim Arabs. Also, as conversions increased, tax revenues off non-Muslims decreased to dangerous lows. These issues continued to grow until they helped cause the Abbasid Revolt in the 740s. Non-Muslim groups in the Umayyad Caliphate, which included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and pagan Berbers, were called shimmies. They were given a legally protected status as second-class citizens as long as they accepted and acknowledged the political supremacy of the ruling Muslims. They were allowed to have their own courts, and were given freedom of their religion within the empire. Although they could not hold the highest public offices in the empire, they had many bureaucratic positions within the government. Christians and Jews still continued to produce great theological thinkers within their communities, but as time wore on, many of the intellectuals converted to Islam, leading to a lack of great thinkers in the non-Muslim communities.
History of Pakistan and India
The history of India begins with evidence of human activity of Home sapiens, as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including Home erectus from about 500,000 years ago. The lands Valley Cavitation. Which spread and flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent
Indian philosophers
This periodization has been criticized, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodization is the division into "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill's periodization while Flood and Muse follow the ancient classical, mediaeval and modern periods periodization. Different periods are designated as classical Hinduism. Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE pre-classical. It's the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-Buddhism in India For Michaels the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of Ascetic reformism whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions.Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE which he calls the Classical Period. This was a time when traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The Brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic period. According to Muse some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and personal enlightenment and transformation which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time. Indian philosophers came to regard the human as an immortal soul encased in a perishable body and bound by action, or karma to a cycle of endless existences. According to Muse, reincarnation is a fundamental principle of virtually all religions formed in Indias.The period of the ascetic reforms saw the rise of Buddhism and Jainism while Sikhism originated during the time of Islamic rule Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hath Nora in the Narmada Valley in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent. Ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements and some of its major civilizations. The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the Paleolithic hominid site in the Sean River valley. Sonia sites are found in the Visalia region across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
7500 BCE in Haryana India
The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by the Neolithic period, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semi permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Biryani findings 7500 BCE in Haryana India Merger findings 7000 BCE onwards in Baluchistan, Pakistan. Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the Gulf of Kham bat in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE. However, the one dredged piece of wood in question was found in an area of strong ocean currents. Neolithic agriculture cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE.in the lower Gang etic valley around 3000 BCE, and in later South India, spreading southwards and also northwards into Malawi around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilization of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilisation.The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilization. It was centered on the Indus River and its tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley the
Ganges Yamuna Doab Gujarat and southeastern Afghanistan. The civilization is primarily located in modern-day India Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces and Pakistan Sindh Punjab and Baluchistan provinces Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley the Harappa’s developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft carnal products, seal carving and produced copper bronze lead and tin. The Mature Indus civilization flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilization on the subcontinent. The civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira Kalimantan Rupert Rakhigarhi and Lethal in modern-day India, and Harappa Ganeriwala and Moreno dare in modern-day Pakistan. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses. Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanism norms a process sometimes called Sanskritization. It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts. The Koru kingdom corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Grey Ware cultures and to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1000 BCE as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention iron, as same ayes, literally black metal. The Painted Grey Ware culture spanned much of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE. The Vedic Period also established republics such as Vishal, which existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away from the previous tribal system towards the establishment of kingdoms, called after conquering Persia, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate incorporated parts of what is now Pakistan around 720.
The Muslim rulers
The Muslim rulers were keen to invade India a rich region with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world In 712 Arab Muslim general Muhammad bin Passim conquered most of the Indus region in modern day Pakistan for the Umayyad empire, incorporating it as the As Sindh province with its capital at Al Man surah 72 km 45 mi north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh, Pakistan. After several wars the Hindu Rajas defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Rajasthan, halting their expansion and containing them at Sindh in Pakistan Many short lived Islamic kingdoms sultanates under foreign rulers were established across the north western subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal south India, particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian Peninsula. This marked the introduction of a third Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity, often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahrain Sultanate and Deccan sultanates, founded by Turkic rulers flourished in the south. The Vijayanagara Empire rose to prominence by the end of the 13th century as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions. The empire dominated all of Southern India and fought off invasions from the five established Deccan Sultanates. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalong, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. It lasted until 1646 though its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. As a result, much of the territory of the former Vijay agar Empire were captured by Deccan Sultanates and the remainder was divided into many states ruled by Hindu rulers the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings. The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire while the Chili dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting/
India-Muslim
Indo Muslim fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music literature religion and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu literally meaning horde or camp in various Turkic dialects was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskrit Procrit’s with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana 1236 1240.A Turbo-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timor (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nassir-u Din Mahmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timor entered Delhi and the city was sacked destroyed, and left in ruins, after Timor’s army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the other Muslims; 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day. The Empire was established in 1336 by Marinara I and his brother Bakke Raya I of Sangamon Dynasty. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hamper, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India. The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hamper. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Machala of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.
India Razia Sultana 1236-1240
The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada Telugu Tamil and Sanskrit while Carnatic music evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan including Kalong, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya.The 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings. The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Chili dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu literally meaning "horde" or camp in various Turkic dialects was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskrit Procrit’s with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India Razia Sultana 1236-1240. A Turbo-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia Timor Tamerlane. Attacked the reigning Sultan Nassir-u Din Mahmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timor entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timor’s army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be
Sacked except for the sayyids, scholars and the other Muslims; 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day. The Empire was established in 1336 by Marinara I and his brother Bakke Raya I of Sangamon Dynasty. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century.
Indian mathematics
The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hamper, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka India. The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hamper. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Machala of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit while Carnatic music evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalong, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya. The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule two-thirds of the subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely states that accounted for the remaining one-third of the area. There were 674 of the states in 1900 with a population of 73 million, or one person in five. In general, the princely states were strong supporters of the British regime, and the Raj left them alone. They were finally closed down in 1947-48. The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councilors to advise the British viceroy in 1861 the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councilors’ participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British, and many of the troops from small minority groups such as Purchas from Nepal and Sikhs. The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels with the British holding the more senior positions. From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. Some others adopted a militant approach that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle; revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian sub-continent. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-cooperation, civil disobedience and economic resistance. These movements succeeded in bringing independence to the new dominions of India and Pakistan in 1947(Pakistan and India).
