Geneva(Switzerland)

gauche toute! Genève

Country Switzerland Canton Geneva District N/A 46°12′N 6°09′ECoordinates: 46°12′N 6°09′E Population 194,245 Mar 2013 Density 12,247 /km2 (31,721 /sq mi Area 15.93 km2 (6.15 sq mi)[2] Elevation 375 m 1,230 ftPostal code 1200 SFOS number 6621 Mayor list Rémy Pagani (as of 2012 aDemonym Genevois Location of Geneva show Geneva prom /ds in VA French: Genève, IPA Apian Geneva, IPA and German: Gene; IPA is the second most populous city in Switzerland after Zurich and is the most populous city of Romany, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Situated where the Rhone exits Lake Geneva it is the capital of the Republic and Canton of Geneva. The municipality villa de Genève has a population as of March 2013 of 194,245, and the canton République et Canton de Genève, which includes the city has 472,530 residents In 2007 the urban area, or agglomeration franco-valdo-genevoise Great Geneva or Grand Genève in French had 1,240,000 inhabitants in 189 municipalities in both Switzerland and France. The economic area Great Geneva Bern area has 2.9 million inhabitants Geneva is a global city, a financial center and worldwide center for diplomacy and the most important UN international co-operation center with New York thanks to the presence of numerous international organizations, including the headquarters of many of the agencies of the United Nations and the Red Cross. It is also the place where the Geneva Conventions were signed which chiefly concern the treatment of wartime noncombatants and prisoners of war. Geneva was ranked as the world's ninth most important financial center for competitiveness by the Global Financial Centers Index, ahead of Frankfurt, and third in Europe after London and Zurich. and a 2009 survey by Mercer found Geneva to have the third-highest quality of life of any city in the world behind Vienna and Zurich for expatriate people; it is narrowly outranked by Zurich. The city has been referred to as the world's most compact metropolis and the Peace Capital .In 2009 and 2011Geneva was ranked as, respectively, the fourth and fifth most expensive city in the world.

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Pakistan History Currency

Pakistan History Currency A currency (from Middle English currant, meaning in circulation) in the most specific use of the word refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation, as a medium of exchange, especially circulating paper money. This use is synonymous with banknotes, or (sometimes) with banknotes plus coins, meaning the physical tokens used for money by a government. A much more general use of the word currency is anything that is used in any circumstances, as a medium of exchange. In this use, "currency" is a synonym for the concept of money. A definition of intermediate generality is that a currency is a system of money (monetary units) in common use, especially in a nation. Under this definition, British pounds, U.S. dollars, and European euros are different types of currency, or currencies. Currencies in this definition need not be physical objects, but as stores of value are subject to trading between nations in foreign exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies.] Currencies in the sense used by foreign exchange markets, are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance. The former definitions of the term "currency" are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the currency systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currency evolved from two basic innovations, both of which had occurred by 2000 BC. Originally money was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia, then Egilt. This first stage of currency, where metals were used to represent stored value, and symbols to represent commodities, formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. However, the collapse of the Near Eastern trading system pointed to a flaw: in an era where there was no place that was safe to store value, the value of a circulating medium could only be as sound as the forces that defended that store. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military. By the late Bronze Age, however, a series of treaties had established safe passage for merchants around the Eastern Mediterranean, spreading from Minoan Crete and Mycenae in the northwest to Elam and Bahrain in the southeast. Although it is not known what functioned as a currency to facilitate these exchanges, it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought this trading system to an end. It was only with the recovery of Phoenician trade in the ninth and tenth centuries BC that saw a return to prosperity, and the appearance of real coinage, possibly first in Anatolia with Croesus of Lydia and subsequently with the Greeks and Persians. In Africa many forms of value store have been used including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manila currency, ochre and other earth oxides, and so on. The manila rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to buy and sell slaves. African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many places various forms of barter still apply. Currency use is based on the concept of lax monetize; that a sovereign state decides which currency it shall use. Currently, the International Organization for Standardization has introduced a three-letter system of codes ISO 4217 to define currency as opposed to simple names or currency signs in order to remove the confusion that there are dozens of currencies called the dollar and many called the franc. Even the pound is used in nearly a dozen different countries, all, of course, with wildly differing values. In general, the three-letter code uses the ISO 3166 1 country code for the first two letters and the first letter of the name of the currency (D for dollar, for instance) as the third letter. United States currency, for instance is globally referred to as USD. It is also possible for a currency to be internet-based and digital, for instance, Bit coin the Ripple Pay system or Mint Chip, and not tied to any specific country.

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Aryan Invasion of India

Aryan Invasion of India

The ancient history of India is the theory of the Aryan invasion. India was invaded and conquered by nomadic light-skinned Indo-European tribes from Central Asia around 1500-100 BC, who overthrew an earlier and more advanced dark-skinned Dravidian civilization from which they took most of what later became Hindu This so-called pre-Aryan civilization is said to be evidenced by the large urban ruins of what has been called the Indus valley culture . The war between the powers of light and darkness, a prevalent idea in ancient Aryan Vedic scripture. The Indus valley culture was pronounced pre-Aryans for several reasons that were largely part of the cultural milieu of nineteenth century European thinking as scholars following Max Muller had decided that the Aryans came into India around 1500 BC, since the Indus valley culture was earlier than this, they concluded that it had to be pre Aryan. This placed the beginning of the world at 400 BC and the flood around 2500 BC it became difficult to get the Aryans in India before 1500 BC the present population of Gujarat is composed of more or less the same ethnic groups as are noticed at Lethal in 2000 BC. Similarly, the present population of the Punjab is said to be ethnically the same as the population of Harappa and Rupert 4000 years ago. There are many points in fact that prove the Vedic nature of the Indus Valley culture. Further excavation has shown that the great majority of the sites of the Indus Valley culture were east, not west of Indus in fact, the largest concentration of sites appears in an area of Punjab and Rajasthan near the dry banks of ancient Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. The Vedic culture was said to have been founded by the sage Manu between the banks of Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. Vedic and late Vedic texts also contain interesting astronomical lore. The Vedic calendar was based upon astronomical sightings of the equinoxes and solstices. Such texts as ' Vedanta Jotas ' speak of a time when the vernal equinox was in the middle of the Nastran Alisha or about 23 degrees 20 minutes Cancer. This gives a date of 1300 BC. The Your Veda and Atbara Veda' speak of the vernal equinox in the Kittitas Pleiades early Taurus and the summer solstice Anaya in Magma early Leo Such references were merely ignored or pronounced unintelligible by Western scholars because they yielded too early a date for the Vedas than what they presumed not because such references did not exist. Hence a pattern of ignoring literary evidence or misinterpreting them to suit the Aryan invasion idea became prevalent even to the point of changing the meaning of Vedic words to suit this theory. They prove that the Vedic culture existed at these periods and already had a sophisticated system of astronomy. Such references were merely ignored or pronounced unintelligible by Western scholars because they yielded too early a date for the 'Vedas' than what they presumed, not because such references did not exist. It was assumed by these scholars many of whom were also Christian missionaries unsympathetic to the Vedas that the Vedic culture was that of primitive nomads from Central Asia. Hence they could not have founded any urban culture like that of the Indus valley. The only basis for this was a rather questionable interpretation of the ' Rig Veda ' that they made, ignoring the sophisticated nature of the culture presented within it. Meanwhile, it was also pointed out that in the middle of the second millennium BC, a number of Indo-European invasions apparently occurred in the Middle East, wherein Indo-European peoples the Hittites, Mit tan and Kisses conquered and ruled Mesopotamia for some centuries. An Aryan invasion of India would have been another version of this same movement of Indo European peoples. On top of this, excavators of the Indus valley culture, like Wheeler, thought they found evidence of destruction of the culture by an outside invasion confirming this. There are many points in fact that prove the Vedic nature of the Indus Valley culture. Further excavation has shown that the great majority of the sites of the Indus Valley culture were east not west of Indus. In fact, the largest concentration of sites appears in an area of Punjab and Rajasthan near the dry banks of ancient Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. The Vedic culture was said to have been founded by the sage Manu between the banks of Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. The Sara Swati is lauded as the main river naditama in the 'Rig Veda' & is the most frequently mentioned in the text. The Vedic culture was said to have been founded by the sage Manu between the banks of Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. The Vedic culture was said to have been founded by the sage Manu between the banks of Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. Hence the Vedic people were well acquainted with this river and regarded it as their immemorial homeland.

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history of Islam

The early history of Islam after the death of Muhammad is one of glorious wars and victories on the one hand, and hatred, dissension, jealousy, intrigue and deceit on the other.

It begins with the so-called 'Ridda' of a number of Arab tribes after the death of Muhammad. Several 'prophets' contested the leadership of Muhammad and his subsequent successor Abu Bakr, who was chosen after his death to lead the Muslim believers.
The first Khalif Abu Bakr 10-12 AH 632-634 AD died after only two years of reign, and was followed by Khalif Umar 12-22 AH 634-644 AD Umar was, like Abu Bakr, a father-in-law of Muhammad. He was assassinated by an Iraqian slave while at prayer in the mosque. Under him - probably the most gifted and respected of the Khalifs, the Arab Empire grew vastly. He was succeeded by the third Khalif Uthman 22-34 AH 644-656 AD By trying to unify the Empire,

largely comprising independence-loving Arabs, he fell into disfavour, particularly for his revision of the Qur'an (see this chapter). He was assassinated in a gruesome way and was not allowed to be buried in the Muslim cemetery. His wife, with some of his friends, buried him by night without the ritual washings, listening to the curses of the Arabs, who also pelted stones at them. He was buried in the Jewish cemetery. Khalif Ali was the last of the 'four rightly guided' Khalifs.
Two well exposed leaders, Talha and al-Zubair, with the support of Aysha, rebelled against Ali. The resulting Battle of the Camel saw 10 000 Muslims slaughtered. Ali and his troops won, but soon faced another contender, Mu'awiya, the Governor of Syria, who accused him as did Aysha, of complicity in the assassination of Uthman. Another battle resulted with tremendous loss of life but without a decisive victory. Mu'awiya and Ali agreed to appoint arbiters and to abide by their solution. This strongly undermined the authority of Ali, who eventually was assassinated by one of his disillusioned followers.
The heir and expected successor of Ali, al-Hassan, renounced his khalifship in favour of Mu'awiya, who from then on ruled not only Syria and Egypt, but the whole Islamic empire.
Al-Hussein, Ali's other son, together with most of his family, was slain under the reign of Mu'awayia's son, the Khalifah Yazid I. at the battle of Kerbela, which actually was rather an assassination than a battle.
This triggered off a split in Islam. Those who sided with Ali and his sons, whom they declared the only true Khalifs, because they were relatives of Muhammad, are now known as the Shiáh followers Muslims. The much bigger part  today about 80% are known as Sunni one of the path Muslims.

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Muthana ibn Haritha

Muthana ibn Haritha, a new convert to Islam after the Prophet(s)'s death, from the north eastern Arab tribe called Bakr was sent on a campaign in Iraq with Khalid ibn al-Walid and later took over the command. After the victory in the so called Battle of the River of Blood at Ullais near modern Samawah in Iraq the two Muslim generals gave the enemy no respite and Hira was captured in May with only a small and in part  locally recruited force. Hira was a Persian outpost but largely inhabited by Arabsand an important city in Iraq. It was also the first acquisition of the Muslims outside the Arabian Peninsula. Hira was spared military occupation and its Arab inhabitants were allowed to remain Nestorian Christains this sect was bitterly hostile to the Monophysite form of Christainity prevailing among the Egyptians Syrians, and Abyssinians on the payment of a large sum of . Next year Khalid was suddenly ordered to go and take over the command of the Muslim armies in Syria who needed help and Muthana was left behind in charge of the campaign on the Persian front.
While the campaign in Iraq against the Sasnids was going on, at home major apostasy was stamped out by the revolting tribes being brought under control. Abu Bakr now turned his attention to the conquest of Syrian and Palestine on the Byzantine frontier which he regarded as more important. Through their commercial activities, the Arabs were more familiar with, and interested in, this region than Persia, which was largely unknown to them. E

ven the Prophet(s) in his lifetime showed interest in it and sent an expedition under his adopted son Zayd ibn Haritha, to the Syrian broder in 629. But the vastly superior Byzantine army had no difficulty in crushing the raw soldiers of early Islam. Zayd died fighting, and the expedition ended in diaster.
In 633 Abu Bakr organized three armies of 3.000 soldiers eachg and put them under the command of Yezid ibn Abi Sufyan his father, Abu Sufyan, the Makkan leader in battles against the Muslims, was then governor of Najran and Hijaz Shurahbil ibn Hasana and Amr ibn al As who was later to become famous for his conquest of Egypt in 640.2 and three times its governor The first two columns entered Jordan while Amr led his troops to south-eastern Palestine, and near Gaza he annihilated in February a small army under

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