History of Pakistan

History of Pakistan

Prior to creation as a modern state in 1947 the area of modern Pakistan was both ruled and reigned by local kings and under numerous imperial power throughout different time periods. The ancient history of the region comprising present-day Pakistan also includes some of the oldest empires from the subcontinent and some of its major civilizations. By the 18th century the land was incorporated into British India. The political history of the nation began with the birth of the All India Muslim in 1906 to protect "Muslim interests, amid neglect and under-representation" and to oppose Congress and growing Indian nationalism in return the British Raj would decide to grant local self-rule. On 29 December 1930 Sir Mohammad Irbil called for an autonomous new state in northwestern India for Indian Muslims the League rose to popularity in the late 1930s. Mohammad Ali Jinnah espoused the Two Nation Theory and led the League to adopt the Lahore Resolution of 1940, demanding the formation of independent states in the East and the West of British India. Eventually, a united Pakistan with its wings West Pakistan and East Pakistan – gained independence from the British, on 14 August 1947 After an intense guerrilla insurgency followed by War with India. The state of East Pakistan separated at a considerable distance from the rest of Pakistan, became the independent state of Bangladesh in 1971.

Lahore (Pakistan)

.A mythological legend, based on oral traditions, states that Lahore was named after lavas on of the Hindu god Rama who supposedly founded the city To this day, the Lahore Fort has a vacant temple dedicated to Lava (also pronounced Lon, hence Lon award or The Fort of Lon). Likewise, the Raver that flows through northern Lahore was named for the Hindu goddess Durg. Ptoemy the celebrated astronomer and geographer, mentions in his Geographic a city called Labella situated on the route between the Indus river and Palibothra or PataliputraPanta in a tract of country called Kasperia Kashmir described as extending along the rivers Biases or Vista Jhelum Sandoval or Chandra Braga (Chenab), and Addis or Amravati Ravi. The oldest authentic document about Lahore was written anonymously in 982 and is called Hudud-i-Alam It was translated into English by Vladimir Fedorovich Minor sky and published in Lahore in 1927. In this document, Lahore is referred to as a small shah city with "impressive temples, large markets and huge orchards." It refers to "two major markets around which dwellings exist," and it also mentions "the mud walls that enclose these two dwellings to make it one." The original document is currently held in the British Museum the city of Lahore has a Gujarat origin. The earliest princes were said to be Ganja and traditional Panjabi tribal origins. Heian Tsang the Chinese traveler, who visited the Punjab in 630 AD speaks of a large city, containing many thousands of families, chiefly Brahmans situated on the eastern frontier of the kingdom of Chaka which he says, extended from the Induct to the Beas River. Around 580 Bowen king Bimbisara ruled South Asia, the society came to be divided into different communities based on their occupation] One of their communities was called Kshatriyas and King Luv's descendants were classed with them and came to be known as Liana, which was also referred to as Liana. The Lianas from Loharghat became known Lohana Chinese traveller Faxian. who visited South Asia between 414 and 399 B.C., calls Loanda brave community ruling the northwest territory of South Asia, in his diary Another Chinese traveler, Kormaing who came in the eleventh century A.D. speaks of a Lorena kingdom as a mighty power Historian Burton writes Lianas were brave people and says they were spread over today's Baluchistan (Pakistan), Afghanistan and eastern fringes of Central Apical. Todd, who delved into history of Rajasthan, describes Lianas as one of the oldest Kshatriya community.

Mini Pakistan Karachi

This article is about the city of Karachi. For other uses, Karachi is the Pakistan Metropolicity. And this is Karachi Skyline, M.A Jinnah, and Textile Market. Kept headquarters Sindh High Court Boat Basin and Nag an Interchang.The Gateway to Pakistan. The City of Mini Pakistan. Karachi in Sindh and in Pakistan. Coordinates: 24°51′36″N 67°0′36″ECoordinates, 24°51′36″N 67°0′36″ECoordinates Country Pakistan. Province Sindh. Karachi Sindh. Karachi, pronounced is the most populous city of Pakistan and its main seaport and financial center. As well as the capital of Sindh Province. The city has an estimated population of 23.5 million people as of April 2013, and a density of nearly 6,000 people per square kilometer 15,500 per square mile Karachi is the 3rd largest city in the word by population within city limits] and the 11th-largest urban agglomeration It is Pakistan's center of banking, industry, economic activity and trade and is home to Pakistan's largest corporations, including those involved in textiles, shipping automotive industry entertainment the arts. Fashion, advertising Publishing software developed and medical residual research. The city is a hub of higher education in South Asia and the Muslim word. Karachi is ranked as a beta world city. It was the capital of Pakistan until Islamabad was constructed as a capital in order to spread development evenly across the country and to prevent it from being concentrated in Karachi. ] Karachi is the location of the port of Karachi and port Bin Qasim. Two of the region's largest and busiest ports. After the independence of Pakistan, the city population increased dramatically when hundreds of thousands of Mohair’s from India and other parts of South Asia came to settle in Karachi. The city is located in the south of the country, along the coastline meeting the Arabian Sea. It is spread over 3,527 km2 -1,362 sq. mi) in area. It is known as the City of Lights and The Bride of the Cities for its liveliness, and the City of the Quaid having been the birth and burial place of Quaid-e-AZ am, the Great Leader. Muhammad Ali Jinnah (city) the founder of Pakistan, who made the city his home after Pakistan's independence from the British Raj on 14 August 1947. After sending a couple of exploratory missions to the area, the British East India Company captured the town when HMS welled anchored of Manor Island on 1 February 1839. Two days later, the little fort surrendered. The town was later annexed to British India when Sindh was annexed by Major General Chiral James at the Battle of Miami on 17 February 1843.On his departure in 1847, Napier is said to have remarked, "Would that I could come again to see you in your grandeur!" Karachi was made the capital of Sindh in the 1840s. On Napier's departure, it was added along with the rest of Sindh to the Bombay Presidency a move that caused resentment among the native Sindh is. The British realized the importance of the city as a military cantonment and as a port for exporting the produce of the Indus River basin, and developed its harbor for shipping. The foundations of a city municipal government were laid down and infrastructure development was undertaken. New businesses opened up and the population of the town began rising. The arrival of the troops of the Company Abrader in 1839 spawned the foundation of the new section, the military cantonment. The cantonment formed the basis of the 'white' town, where the native population had restricted access. The 'white' town was modeled after English industrial parent-cities, where work and residential spaces were separated, as were residential from recreational places. Karachi was divided into two major poles. The 'native' town in the northwest now enlarged to accommodate the burgeoning mercantile population. When the Indian Rebellion in 1857 broke out in South Asia, the 21st Native Infantry, then stationed in Karachi, declared allegiance to rebels and joining their numbers on 10 September 1857. Nevertheless, the British were able to quickly reassert control over Karachi and defeat the uprising. Officer William 'Waft' Frost was considered to be instrumental in quelling the rebellion and was rewarded for his valor with an Order of the British Empire. This was awarded to him on 23 April 1858. However, he remains unpopular in areas of Karachi to this day. In 1864, the first telegraphic message was sent from India to England when a direct telegraph connection was laid between Karachi and London. In 1878 the city was connected to the rest of British India by rail. Public building projects, such as Frere Hall 1865 and the Empress Market 1890 were undertaken. In 1876 Muhammad ALI Jinnah the founder of Pakistan. Was born in the city, which by now had become a bustling city with mosques, temples, courthouses, paved streets and a harbor. By 1899 Karachi had become the largest wheat exporting port in the East.] Before the year 1880 the majority of the population in Karachi consisted of the indigenous Sindh is and Bloch were bilingual & also spoke Sindhi as their second language). Karachi was a small port town and part of Taper dynasty in Sindh. The British East India Company captured Karachi on 3 February 1839 and started developing it as a major port. As a result of British rule the local Hindi population established a massive presence in the city. These developments in Karachi resulted in an influx of economic migrants Paris Christians Marathi’s Guans Chinese British Arad’s and Gujarat is. The population of the city was about 105,000 inhabitants by the end of the 19th century, with a mix of nationalities. British colonialists embarked on works of sanitation and transportation – such as gravel paved streets, drains, street sweepers, and a network of trams and horse-drawn trolleys. In the time of Pakistan in 1947 Karachi.

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Old City of Bern Country Switzerland

The Aar flows around the Old City with a loop east expansive. The Old City of Bern is the medieval city center of Bern Switzerland. Built on a narrow hill surrounded on three sides by the Aare River, its compact layout has remained essentially unchanged since its construction during the 12th to the 15th century. Despite a major fire in 1405, after which much of the city was rebuilt in sandstone and substantial construction efforts in the 18th century, Bern's old city has retained its medieval character. The Old City is home to Switzerland's tallest cathedral as well as other churches, bridges and a large collection of Renaissance fountains. In addition to many historical buildings, the seats of the federal cantonal and municipal government are also situated in the Old City. It is an Unsecond Cultural World Heritage Site since 1983 due to the compact and generally intact medieval core and is an excellent example of incorporating the modern world into a medieval city. Numerous buildings in the Old City have been designated as Swiss Cultural Properties of National Significance as well as the entire Old City. Founding. Map of the city from 1638 showing the Old City as well as later defensive fortifications to the east. The history of the city of Bern proper begins with its founding by Duke Berthold of Zähringen in 1191. Local legend has it that the duke vowed to name the city after the first animal he met on the hunt which turned out to be a bear Both the name of the city Bern can stand for Barren, bears and its heraldic beast, come from this legend. At that time, much of today's Switzerland then considered part of southern Burgundy was under the authority of the house of Zähringen. The Zähringer leaders although with no actual duchy of their own were styled dukes by decree of the German King and exercised imperial power south of the Rhine. To establish their position there, they founded or expanded numerous settlements, including Fribourg in 1157 Bern Bergdorf and Murat .The area chosen by Berthold was a hilly Peninsula surrounded by the Aare River on three sides. This location made the city easy to defend and influenced the later development of the city. The long, narrow shape of the peninsula made the city develop as several long, parallel rows of houses. The only major cross streets going north and south developed along the city walls, which were moved to allow the city to expand. Therefore, the cross streets mark the stages of development in the Old City of Bern. On the eastern end of the peninsula a small fort, called Castle Newegg, was founded by Berthold IV in the second half of the 12th century. Either when the fort was built or in 1191, the city of Bern was founded around the eastern end of the peninsula. During the second half of the 13th century the river side foundation of Newegg Castle was strengthened and connected to a new west city wall. This wall was added to protect the four streets, known as the New City or Savoy City that had sprung up outside the Zytglogge. The new west wall included a gate known as the Käfiggturm German Prison Tower Around 1268 Newegg Castle was destroyed, and the city expanded into the area formerly occupied by the castle. In the south east part of the peninsula below the main hill that the rest of the Old City occupied, a section known as Matte grew up. An illustration of the Large and Small Redoubts Schengen added from 1622 to 1634 for almost a century the Käfigturm remained the western boundary of Bern. However as the city grew people began settling outside the city walls. In 1344 the city started to build a third wall to protect the growing population. By 1346 the project was finished and six new streets were protected by a wall and the Christoffelturm German St. Christopher Tower the Christoffelturm remained the western border of Bern until the 19th century. From 1622 to 1634 a series of defensive walls and strong points were added outside the Christoffelturm. These defensive walls, known as the Grosse Shane and Kline Shane large and small redoubt respectively well as the Schanzegraben (redoubt ditch or moat), were never used as living space for the city, though the Schanzengraben was used for a while to house the Bärengrabenb. The Munster of Bern German Berners Munster is a Protestant Gothic cathedral located on the south side of the Peninsula Construction on the Munster began in 1421 and finished with the bell tower in 1893. The bell tower is 100 m 328 ft. and is the tallest in Switzerland. The largest bell in the bell tower is also the largest bell in Switzerland. This enormous bell, weighing about 10 tons and 247 cm 8.1 ft. in diameter was cast in 1611 and is still rung every day. It is possible to stand next to the bell when it is rung, but one has to cover their ears to avoid hearing damage. Above the main portal is a rare complete collection of Gothic sculpture. The collection represents the Christian belief in the Last Judgment where the wicked will be separated from the righteous. The large 47 free-standing statues are replicas the originals are in the Bern History Museum and the 170 smaller statues are all original. The interior is large, open and fairly empty. Nearly all the art and altars in the cathedral were removed in 1528 during the iconoclasm of the Protestant Reformation. The paintings and statues were dumped in what became the Cathedral Terrace, making the terrace a rich archeological site. The only major pieces of art that survived the iconoclasm inside the cathedral are the stained glass windows and the choir stalls. The stained glass windows date from 1441–1450 and are considered the most valuable in Switzerland. The windows include a number of heraldic symbols and religious images as well as an entire Dance of Death window. This window shows death, as a skeleton, claiming people from all professions and social classes. A "Dance of Death" was intended as a reminder that death would come to everyone regardless of wealth or status, and may have been a comfort in a world filled with plagues and wars. The choir in the eastern side of the Cathedral between the nave and the sanctuary houses the first Renaissance choir stalls in Switzerland. The stalls are carved with lifelike animals and images of daily life.

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Geneva(Switzerland)

gauche toute! Genève

Country Switzerland Canton Geneva District N/A 46°12′N 6°09′ECoordinates: 46°12′N 6°09′E Population 194,245 Mar 2013 Density 12,247 /km2 (31,721 /sq mi Area 15.93 km2 (6.15 sq mi)[2] Elevation 375 m 1,230 ftPostal code 1200 SFOS number 6621 Mayor list Rémy Pagani (as of 2012 aDemonym Genevois Location of Geneva show Geneva prom /ds in VA French: Genève, IPA Apian Geneva, IPA and German: Gene; IPA is the second most populous city in Switzerland after Zurich and is the most populous city of Romany, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Situated where the Rhone exits Lake Geneva it is the capital of the Republic and Canton of Geneva. The municipality villa de Genève has a population as of March 2013 of 194,245, and the canton République et Canton de Genève, which includes the city has 472,530 residents In 2007 the urban area, or agglomeration franco-valdo-genevoise Great Geneva or Grand Genève in French had 1,240,000 inhabitants in 189 municipalities in both Switzerland and France. The economic area Great Geneva Bern area has 2.9 million inhabitants Geneva is a global city, a financial center and worldwide center for diplomacy and the most important UN international co-operation center with New York thanks to the presence of numerous international organizations, including the headquarters of many of the agencies of the United Nations and the Red Cross. It is also the place where the Geneva Conventions were signed which chiefly concern the treatment of wartime noncombatants and prisoners of war. Geneva was ranked as the world's ninth most important financial center for competitiveness by the Global Financial Centers Index, ahead of Frankfurt, and third in Europe after London and Zurich. and a 2009 survey by Mercer found Geneva to have the third-highest quality of life of any city in the world behind Vienna and Zurich for expatriate people; it is narrowly outranked by Zurich. The city has been referred to as the world's most compact metropolis and the Peace Capital .In 2009 and 2011Geneva was ranked as, respectively, the fourth and fifth most expensive city in the world.

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Pakistan History Currency

Pakistan History Currency A currency (from Middle English currant, meaning in circulation) in the most specific use of the word refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation, as a medium of exchange, especially circulating paper money. This use is synonymous with banknotes, or (sometimes) with banknotes plus coins, meaning the physical tokens used for money by a government. A much more general use of the word currency is anything that is used in any circumstances, as a medium of exchange. In this use, "currency" is a synonym for the concept of money. A definition of intermediate generality is that a currency is a system of money (monetary units) in common use, especially in a nation. Under this definition, British pounds, U.S. dollars, and European euros are different types of currency, or currencies. Currencies in this definition need not be physical objects, but as stores of value are subject to trading between nations in foreign exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies.] Currencies in the sense used by foreign exchange markets, are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance. The former definitions of the term "currency" are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the currency systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currency evolved from two basic innovations, both of which had occurred by 2000 BC. Originally money was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia, then Egilt. This first stage of currency, where metals were used to represent stored value, and symbols to represent commodities, formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. However, the collapse of the Near Eastern trading system pointed to a flaw: in an era where there was no place that was safe to store value, the value of a circulating medium could only be as sound as the forces that defended that store. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military. By the late Bronze Age, however, a series of treaties had established safe passage for merchants around the Eastern Mediterranean, spreading from Minoan Crete and Mycenae in the northwest to Elam and Bahrain in the southeast. Although it is not known what functioned as a currency to facilitate these exchanges, it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought this trading system to an end. It was only with the recovery of Phoenician trade in the ninth and tenth centuries BC that saw a return to prosperity, and the appearance of real coinage, possibly first in Anatolia with Croesus of Lydia and subsequently with the Greeks and Persians. In Africa many forms of value store have been used including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manila currency, ochre and other earth oxides, and so on. The manila rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to buy and sell slaves. African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many places various forms of barter still apply. Currency use is based on the concept of lax monetize; that a sovereign state decides which currency it shall use. Currently, the International Organization for Standardization has introduced a three-letter system of codes ISO 4217 to define currency as opposed to simple names or currency signs in order to remove the confusion that there are dozens of currencies called the dollar and many called the franc. Even the pound is used in nearly a dozen different countries, all, of course, with wildly differing values. In general, the three-letter code uses the ISO 3166 1 country code for the first two letters and the first letter of the name of the currency (D for dollar, for instance) as the third letter. United States currency, for instance is globally referred to as USD. It is also possible for a currency to be internet-based and digital, for instance, Bit coin the Ripple Pay system or Mint Chip, and not tied to any specific country.

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Aryan Invasion of India

Aryan Invasion of India

The ancient history of India is the theory of the Aryan invasion. India was invaded and conquered by nomadic light-skinned Indo-European tribes from Central Asia around 1500-100 BC, who overthrew an earlier and more advanced dark-skinned Dravidian civilization from which they took most of what later became Hindu This so-called pre-Aryan civilization is said to be evidenced by the large urban ruins of what has been called the Indus valley culture . The war between the powers of light and darkness, a prevalent idea in ancient Aryan Vedic scripture. The Indus valley culture was pronounced pre-Aryans for several reasons that were largely part of the cultural milieu of nineteenth century European thinking as scholars following Max Muller had decided that the Aryans came into India around 1500 BC, since the Indus valley culture was earlier than this, they concluded that it had to be pre Aryan. This placed the beginning of the world at 400 BC and the flood around 2500 BC it became difficult to get the Aryans in India before 1500 BC the present population of Gujarat is composed of more or less the same ethnic groups as are noticed at Lethal in 2000 BC. Similarly, the present population of the Punjab is said to be ethnically the same as the population of Harappa and Rupert 4000 years ago. There are many points in fact that prove the Vedic nature of the Indus Valley culture. Further excavation has shown that the great majority of the sites of the Indus Valley culture were east, not west of Indus in fact, the largest concentration of sites appears in an area of Punjab and Rajasthan near the dry banks of ancient Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. The Vedic culture was said to have been founded by the sage Manu between the banks of Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. Vedic and late Vedic texts also contain interesting astronomical lore. The Vedic calendar was based upon astronomical sightings of the equinoxes and solstices. Such texts as ' Vedanta Jotas ' speak of a time when the vernal equinox was in the middle of the Nastran Alisha or about 23 degrees 20 minutes Cancer. This gives a date of 1300 BC. The Your Veda and Atbara Veda' speak of the vernal equinox in the Kittitas Pleiades early Taurus and the summer solstice Anaya in Magma early Leo Such references were merely ignored or pronounced unintelligible by Western scholars because they yielded too early a date for the Vedas than what they presumed not because such references did not exist. Hence a pattern of ignoring literary evidence or misinterpreting them to suit the Aryan invasion idea became prevalent even to the point of changing the meaning of Vedic words to suit this theory. They prove that the Vedic culture existed at these periods and already had a sophisticated system of astronomy. Such references were merely ignored or pronounced unintelligible by Western scholars because they yielded too early a date for the 'Vedas' than what they presumed, not because such references did not exist. It was assumed by these scholars many of whom were also Christian missionaries unsympathetic to the Vedas that the Vedic culture was that of primitive nomads from Central Asia. Hence they could not have founded any urban culture like that of the Indus valley. The only basis for this was a rather questionable interpretation of the ' Rig Veda ' that they made, ignoring the sophisticated nature of the culture presented within it. Meanwhile, it was also pointed out that in the middle of the second millennium BC, a number of Indo-European invasions apparently occurred in the Middle East, wherein Indo-European peoples the Hittites, Mit tan and Kisses conquered and ruled Mesopotamia for some centuries. An Aryan invasion of India would have been another version of this same movement of Indo European peoples. On top of this, excavators of the Indus valley culture, like Wheeler, thought they found evidence of destruction of the culture by an outside invasion confirming this. There are many points in fact that prove the Vedic nature of the Indus Valley culture. Further excavation has shown that the great majority of the sites of the Indus Valley culture were east not west of Indus. In fact, the largest concentration of sites appears in an area of Punjab and Rajasthan near the dry banks of ancient Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. The Vedic culture was said to have been founded by the sage Manu between the banks of Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. The Sara Swati is lauded as the main river naditama in the 'Rig Veda' & is the most frequently mentioned in the text. The Vedic culture was said to have been founded by the sage Manu between the banks of Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. The Vedic culture was said to have been founded by the sage Manu between the banks of Sara Swati and Drishadvati rivers. Hence the Vedic people were well acquainted with this river and regarded it as their immemorial homeland.

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