Umar bin al-Khattab

Umar ibn Al Katas Umar Son of Al Kata born 579 CE died 6 November 644 CE was one of the most powerful and influential Muslim caliph’s rulers in history. He was a sahib companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr 632,634 as the second Caliph of Rash dun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert Islamic jurist and is best known for his pious and just nature which earned him the title Al Faro the one who distinguishes between rights and wrong He is sometimes referred to as Caliph Umar I by historians of Islam, since a later Umayyad caliph Umar also bore that name. Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empir

e and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. His attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire resulted in the conquest of the Persian Empire in less than two years. It was Umar according to Jewish tradition, which set aside the Christian ban on Jews and allowed Jews into Jerusalem and to worship. Umar was born in Mecca to the Bane Aid clan, which was responsible for arbitrations among the tribes. His father was Kata in Nufayl and his mother was Han tama bent His ham from the tribe of Bane Makhzum. He is said to have belonged to a middle-class family. In his youth he used to tend to his father’s camels in the plains near Mecca. His father was famed for his intelligence among his tribe. He was a middle class merchant and is believed to be a ruthless man and emotional polytheist who often treated Umar badly. As obvious from Umar’s own statement regarding his father during his later political rule Umar said my father Al-Kata was a ruthless man. He used to make me work hard if I didn't work he used to beat me and he used to work me to exhaustion. Despite literacy being uncommon in pre-Islamic Arabia, Umar learned to read and write in his youth. Though not a poet himself he developed a love for poetry and literature According to the tradition of Quash while still in his teenage years Umar learned martial arts horse riding and wrestling. He was tall physically powerful and was soon to become a renowned wrestler.

Rome and Persia

Umar was also a gifted orator, and due to his intelligence and overwhelming personality he succeeded his father as an arbitrator of conflicts among the tribes. In addition Umar followed the traditional profession of Quash. He became a merchant and made several journeys to Rome and Persia where he is said to have met the various scholars and analyzed the Roman and Persian societies closely. However as a merchant he is believed to have never been successful. Drinking alcohol was very common among the Quash, and Umar was also fond of drinking in his pre Islamic days. In 610 Muhammad started delivering the message of Islam. Umar alongside others in Mecca opposed Islam and threatened to kill Muhammad. He resolved to defend the traditional, polytheistic religion of Arabia. He was most adamant and cruel in opposing Muhammad and very prominent in persecuting the Muslims. Umar was the first man who resolved that Muhammad had to be murdered in order to finish Islam. Umar firmly believed in the unity of the Quash and saw the new faith of Islam as a cause of division and discord among the Quraish.Due to the persecution at the hands of the Quash Muhammad ordered his followers to migrate to Abyssinia. As a small group of Muslims migrated Umar felt worried about the future unity of the Quash and decided to have Muhammad assassinated. Umar converted to Islam in 616 one year after the Migration to Abyssinia. The story was recounted in Ibn Ishaq, s Sīrah. On his way to murder Muhammad, Umar met his best friend Noam who had secretly converted to Islam but had not told Umar anything about it. When Umar informed him that he had set out to kill Muhammad Noam feared the worst. Umar was a man of his word and would attempt to do what he said. So in order to divert his attention Noam told him to inquire about his own house where his sister and her husband had converted to Islam. Upon arriving at her house Umar found his sister and brother in law Saied bin Said Umar’s cousin reciting the verses of the Quran from sure Ta ha. He started quarreling with his brother in law. When his sister came to rescue her husband, he also started quarreling with her. Yet still they kept on saying you may kill us but we will not give up Islam. Upon hearing these words Umar slapped his sister so hard that she fell to the ground bleeding from her mouth. When he saw what he did to his sister he calmed down out of guilt and asked his sister to give him what she was reciting. His sister replied in the negative and said you are unclean, and no unclean person can touch the Scripture. He insisted, but his sister was not prepared to allow him to touch the pages unless he washed his body. Omar at last gave in. He washed his body and then began to read the verses that were: Verily I am Allah there is no God but me so serve me only and establish regular prayer for my remembrance Quran 20.14.

Hajj of Muhammad in 631

He wept and declared surely this is the word of Allah. I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. On hearing this Hardhat Kaibab came out from inside and said O Omar Glad tidings for you. Yesterday Muhammad prayed to Allah O Allah strengthen Islam with either Omar or Abu Jail whomsoever Thou Likes. It seems that his prayer has been answered in your favor. He then went to Muhammad with the same sword he intended to kill him with and accepted Islam in front of him and his companions. Umar was 27 when he accepted Islam. Following his conversion Umar went to inform the chief of Quash Arm ibn His ham about his acceptance of Islam. According to one account Umar thereafter openly prayed at the Kaibab as the Quash chiefs, Arm ibn His ham and Abu Suflas ibn Herb reportedly watched in anger. This further helped the Muslims to gain confidence in practicing Islam openly. At this stage Umar even challenged anyone who dared to stop the Muslims from praying although no one dared to interfere with Umar when he was openly praying. Umar s conversion to Islam granted power to the Muslims and to the Islamic faith in Mecca. It was after this event that Muslims offered prayers openly in Masjid al Haram for the first time. Abdullah bin Mansour said. Umar s embracing Islam was our victory his migration to Medina was our success, and his reign a blessing from Allah. We didn't offer prayers in Al Haram Mosque until Umar had accepted Islam. When he accepted Islam the Quays were compelled to let us pray in the Mosque. Medina became the new center of Islam and the religion spread rapidly across Arabia. When Muhammad arrived in Medina, he paired off each immigrant Mohair with one of the residents of the city Ansari joining Muhammad ibn Maslamah with Umar making them brothers in faith. Later in Umar's reign as Caliph Muhammad ibn Muscleman would be assigned the office of Chief Inspector of Accountability. Muslims remained in peace in Medina for approximately a year before the Quash raised an army to attack them. In 624 Umar participated in the first Battle between Muslims and Quash of Mecca i.e. Battle of Bard. In 625 he took part in the Battle of Ehud. In the second phase of the Battle when Khalid ibn Wald’s Cavalry attacked Muslims at the rear changing the victory of Muslims to defeat, rumors of Muhammad’s death were spread and many Muslim warriors were routed from the battle field, Umar too was initially routed but hearing that Muhammad was still alive he went to Muhammad at the mountain of Ehud and prepared for the defenses of the hill to keep the army of Quash from approaching the hilltop. Later in the year Umar was a part of campaign against the Jewish tribe of Bane Nadir.

In 625 Umar s daughters Hash was married to Muhammad. Later in 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Battle of Bane Quays. In 628 Umar participated in the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witnesses over the pact. In 628 he was a part of Muslims' campaign to Khyber. In 629 Muhammad sent Arm ibn al A as to Zagat ul Sallisaw from where he called for reinforcement and Muhammad sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jar rah with reinforcement, serving under him were Abu Bark and Umar, they attacked and defeated the enemy. In 630 when Muslim armies rushed for the Conquest of Mecca he was part of that army. Later in 630 he was part of Battle of Hunan and Siege of Tiff. He was part of Muslims army that went for the campaign of Taboo under Muhammad’s command and he was reported to have given half of his wealth for the preparation of this expedition. He also participated in the farewell Hajj of Muhammad in 631. Muhammad died on 8 June 632. Umar, the devoted disciple, could not accept the reality that the "Messenger of God" was dead It is said that Umar promised to strike the head of any man who would say that Muhammad died. At this point Abu Bark is reported to have come out to the Muslim community and gave his famous speech which Whoever worshipped Muhammad let them know that Muhammad has died, and whoever worshipped Allah let them know that Allah is alive and never dies. Abu-Bakr then recited these verses from the Qur'an. Muhammad is but a messenger messengers the like of who have passed away before him. If then he dies or is killed will you turn back on your heel. Hearing this from Abu Bark the most senior disciple of Muhammad Umar then fell down on his knees in a great sense of sorrow and acceptance of the reality. Sunni Muslims say that this denial of Muhammad’s death was occasioned by his deep love for him. Umar’s political genius first manifested as the architect of the caliphate after Muhammad died in 8 June 632While the funeral of Muhammad was being arranged a group of Muhammad's followers who were natives of Medina, the Ansari helpers, organized a meeting on the outskirts of the city, effectively locking out those companions known as Mohairs The Emigrants including Umar.

Muhajirun

Umar found out about this meeting at Saqifah Bane Sarah, and taking with him two other Mohair’s Abu Bark and Abu Obadiah ibn al Jar rah, proceeded to the meeting, presumably to head off the Ansari’s plans for political separatism. Arriving at the meeting Umar was faced with a unified community of tribes from the Ansari who refused to accept the leadership of the Mohair’s. However Umar was undeterred in his belief the caliphate should be under the control of the Mohair’s. Though the Karaj were in disagreement, Umar after strained negotiations lasting up to one or two days, brilliantly divided the Ansari into their old warring factions of Awes and Karaj tribes. Umar resolved the divisions by placing his hand on that of Abu Bark as a unity candidate for those gathered in the Saqifah. Others gathered at the Saqifah meeting followed suit with the exception of the Karaj tribe and their leader sad ibn 'Ubada, whose tribe was ostracized. The Karaj tribe is said to have posed no significant threat as there were sufficient men of war from the Median tribes such as the Bane Awes to immediately organize them into a military bodyguard for Abu Bakr.The creation of the Islamic caliphate would be one of Umar's most enduring legacies, and its significance to world history is hard to overestimate. However Umar himself was characteristically guarded about his own creation. Umar judged the outcome of the Saqifa assembly to be a falter Made lung as 'a precipitate and considered deal because of the absence of most of the prominent Muhajirun including the Prophets own family and clan, whose participation he considered vital for any legitimate consultation shore meshwork. It was, he warned the community to be no precedent for the future. Yet he also defended the outcome, claiming that the Muslims were longing for Abu Bark as for no one else. He apologized; moreover, that the Muhajirun present were forced to press for an immediate oath of allegiance since the Ansari could not have been trusted to wait for a legitimate consultation and might have proceeded to elect one of their own after the departure of the Means. Another reason for Umar to censure the Saia meeting as a falter was no doubt its turbulent and undignified end, as he and his followers jumped upon the sick Kharrazi leader Sad bin Bade in order to teach him a lesson, if not to kill him for daring to challenge the sole right of Quays to rule. This violent break up of the meeting indicates, moreover, that the Ansari cannot all have been swayed by the wisdom and eloquence of Abu Bark’s speech and have accepted him as the best choice for the succession as suggested by Catani. There would have been no sense in beating up the Kharrazi chief if everybody had come around to swearing allegiance to Umar’s candidate. A substantial number of the Ansari, presumably of Karaj in particular must have refused to follow the lead of the Muhajirun.According to various Twelve Shia sources and Wilfred Made lung from The Institute for Ismailia Studies, founded by Kari Aga Khan, Umar and Abu Bark had in effect mounted a political coup against Ali at the Saqifah According to one version of narrations in primary sources, Umar and Abu Bark are also said to have used force to try to secure the allegiance from Ali and his party. It has been reported in mainly Persian historical sources written 300 years later, such as history of al-Tabard that after Ali's refusal to pay homage, Abu Bark sent Umar with an armed contingent to Fatimah’s house where Ali and his supporters are said to have gathered. Umar is reported to have warned those in the House that unless Ali succumbed to Abu Bark, he would set the House on fire and under these circumstances Ali was forced to capitulate. This version of events, fully accepted by Shia scholars, is generally rejected by Sunni scholars who, in view of other reports in their literature, believe that Ali gave oath of alliance to Abu Bark without any grievance. But then other Sunni and Shia sources say that Ali did not seared allegiance to Abu Bark after his election but six months later after the death of his wife Fatimah putting into question al-Tabard account. Either way the Sunni or the Shia accounts both accept that Ali felt that Abu Bark should have informed him before going into the meeting with the Ansari and that that Ali did swear allegiance to Abu Bark. Western scholars tend to agree that Ali believed he had a clear mandate to politically succeed Muhammad citation needed but offer differing views as to the extent of use of force by Umar in an attempt to intimidate Ali and his supporters for instance Dr. Wilfred Made lung from The Institute for Ismailia Studies in his book The Succession to Muhammad, discounts the possibility of use of force and argues that. Isolated reports of use of force against Ali and Bane Has him who unanimously refuses to swear allegiance for six months are probably to be discounted. Abu Bark no doubt was wise enough to restrain Umar from any violence against them well realizing that this would inevitably provoked the sense of solidarity of majority of Abdul Manna who’s acquiescence he needed. His policy was rather not isolating Bane Has him as far as possible. In the bestselling book, in the shadow of the sword, The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World, Tom Holland writes Omar’s historicity is beyond dispute. An Armenian bishop writing a decade or so after Qadisiyya describes Umar as Mighty potentate coordinating the advance of the sons of Ismael from the depths of the desert. Tom Holland writes what added incomparably to his prestige, was that his earth-shaking qualities as a generalissimo were combined with the most distinctive cast of virtues. Rather than ape the manner of a Caesar, as the Ghassanid kings had done he drew on the example of a quite different kind of Christian. Umar’s threadbare robes his diet of bread, salt and water and his rejection of worldly riches would have reminded anyone from the desert reaches beyond Palestine of a very particular kind of person. Monks out in the Judean desert had long been casting themselves as warriors of God. The achievement of Umar was to take such language to a literal and previously unimaginable extreme. In 644, at zenith of his power, Umar was assassinated. His assassination was carried out by Persians, in response to the Muslim conquest of Persia. The assassination was planned several months earlier. In October 644 Umar went for Hajj in Mecca, the assassins started the hoopla of Umar's possible death that year, and the massive crowd of the congregation was used by the conspirators as a veil to hide themselves. It is related that when Umar stood at Mount Arafat he heard a voice saying Caliph never again will you stand on the Mount of Arafat. A companion of Umar Jucar bin Mute is reported to have said. We saw a man standing at the top of the hill and crying, verily that is the last Hajj of Umar. He will never come here again. During one of rituals of Hajj the Rami alJamarat stoning of the Devil someone threw a stone on Umar that wounded his head, a voice was heard that Umar will not attend the Hajj ever again.

On 3 November 644 Porous attacked Umar

Porous brought a complaint to Umar about the high tax charged from him by his master Mughirah. Umar wrote to Mughirah and inquired about the tax Mughirah, s reply was satisfactory, but Umar held that the tax charged from Abu Lulu was reasonable, owning the to his daily income. Umar then is reported to have asked Abu Lulu. I heard that you make windmills make one for me as well. In a sullen mood, Faros said Verily I will make such a mill for you, that whole world would remember it .Hermana, the alleged mastermind of the plot. He was Persian Commander in Chief and was captured and brought to Umar at Medina where to save his life he apparently converted to Islam. One of Umar’s advisors Ki abs al Akbar a former Jewish Rabbi Who had converted to Islam.Jafinah the Christian Arab from Iraq, who was also a foster brother of Sad in Abi Waqqas, former governors of Bursa? Porous Nahavandi popularly known as Abu Lu, Lu ah, he was slave of Muglia ibn Shi’a the governor of Bursa at the time. It was Porous Nahavandi who was assigned the mission of assassinating Umar. According to the plan, before the Far prayers the morning prayers before the dawn Porous would enter AL Masjid al Malawi, the main mosque of Medina where Umar led the prayers and would attack Umar during the prayers, and then flee or mix with the congregation at mosque. There were Persian children slaves in Medina. Seeing them, Porous is quoted saying: You have been enslaved at such a tender age. This Umar sees eaten my heart. I will take his heart out. On 3 November 644 Porous attacked Umar while he was leading the morning prayers, stabbing him six times in the belly and last on the navel that proved fatal. Umar was left profusely bleeding while Abu Lulu tried to flee but people from all sides rushed to capture him in his efforts to escape he is reported to have wounded twelve other people, six or nine of whom later died. At last he was captured but committed suicide using the same dagger. Umar died of the wounds three days later on Sunday 7 November 644 26th Hu al Hijab 23 Umar is reported to have left the following testament: Be kind and generous to the Muhajirun and the Ansari. Those out of them, who are good, be good to them; those who are bad overlook their lapses. Be good to the people of the conquered lands. They are the outer line of our defense; they are the target of the anger and distress of our enemies. They contribute to our revenues. They should be taxed only on their surplus wealth. Be gracious to the Bedouins as they are the backbone of the Arab nation. I instruct you to be good to the Shimmies for they are your responsibility. Do not tax them beyond their capacity. Ensure that they pay the Jazzy without undue inconvenience. Fear God, and in all that you do keep His pleasure in view. In the matter of people fear God, and in the matter of Allah do not be afraid of the people. With regard to the people, I enjoin upon you to administer justice with an even hand. See that all the legitimate requirements of the people are met. Be concerned for their welfare. Ensure the safety of their person and property. See that the frontiers of our domains are not violated. Take strong steps to guard the frontiers. In the matter of administration do not prefer the rich to the poor. Be hard against those who violate the law. Show them no mercy. Do not rest content until you have brought the miscreants to book. Treat all the people as equal. Be a pillar of strength for those who are weak and oppressed. Those who are strong but do wrong, make them pay for their wrong-doings. In the distribution of booty and other matters be above nepotism. Let no consideration of relationship or selfish interest weigh with you. The Satan is at large; it may tempt you. Rise above all temptations and perform your duties in accordance with the injunctions of Islam. Get guidance from the Holy Quran and Sunni. Freely consult the wise men around you. Apply your own mind in difficult cases, and seek light from God. Be simple in your living and your habits. Let there be no show or ostentation about you. Lead life as a model Muslim. As you are the leader of the Muslims justify your leadership by being the best among them all.

May God bless you

As per Umar's will he was buried next to Al-Masjid alNabawi alongside Muhammad and C Be kind and generous to the Muhajirun and the Ansari. Those out of them, who are good, be good to them; those who are bad overlook their lapses. Be good to the people of the conquered lands. They are the outer line of our defense; they are the target of the anger and distress of our enemies. They contribute to our revenues. They should be taxed only on their surplus wealth. Be gracious to the Bedouins as they are the backbone of the Arab nation. I instruct you to be good to the Dimmit for they are your responsibility. Do not tax them beyond their capacity. Ensure that they pay the Jazzy without undue inconvenience. Fear God, and in all that you do keep His pleasure in view. In the matter of people fear God, and in the matter of Allah do not be afraid of the people. With regard to the people, I enjoin upon you to administer justice with an even hand. See that all the legitimate requirements of the people are met. Be concerned for their welfare. Ensure the safety of their person and property. See that the frontiers of our domains are not violated. Take strong steps to guard the frontiers. In the matter of administration do not prefer the rich to the poor. Be hard against those who violate the law. Show them no mercy. Do not rest content until you have brought the miscreants to book. Treat all the people as equal. Be a pillar of strength for those who are weak and oppressed. Those who are strong but do wrong, make them pay for their wrong-doings. In the distribution of booty and other matters be above nepotism. Let no consideration of relationship or selfish interest weigh with you. The Satan is at large; it may tempt you. Rise above all temptations and perform your duties in accordance with the injunctions of Islam. Get guidance from the Holy Quran and Sunni. Freely consult the wise men around you. Apply your own mind in difficult cases, and seek light from God. Be simple in your living and your habits. Let there be no show or ostentation about you. Lead life as a model Muslim. As you are the leader of the Muslims, justify your leadership by being the best among them all. May God bless you? Be kind and generous to the Muhajirun and the Ansari. Those out of them, who are good, be good to them; those who are bad overlook their lapses. Be good to the people of the conquered lands. They are the outer line of our defense; they are the target of the anger and distress of our enemies. They contribute to our revenues. They should be taxed only on their surplus wealth. Be gracious to the Bedouins as they are the backbone of the Arab nation. I instruct you to be good to the Dimmit for they are your responsibility. Do not tax them beyond their capacity. Ensure that they pay the Jazzy without undue inconvenience. Fear God, and in all that you do keep His pleasure in view. In the matter of people fear God, and in the matter of Allah do not be afraid of the people. With regard to the people, I enjoin upon you to administer justice with an even hand. See that all the legitimate requirements of the people are met. Be concerned for their welfare. Ensure the safety of their person and property. See that the frontiers of our domains are not violated. Take strong steps to guard the frontiers. In the matter of administration do not prefer the rich to the poor. Be hard against those who violate the law. Show them no mercy. Do not rest content until you have brought the miscreants to book. Treat all the people as equal. Be a pillar of strength for those who are weak and oppressed. Those who are strong but do wrong, make them pay for their wrong-doings. In the distribution of booty and other matters be above nepotism. Let no consideration of relationship or selfish interest weigh with you. The Satan is at large; it may tempt you. Rise above all temptations and perform your duties in accordance with the injunctions of Islam. Get guidance from the Holy Quran and Sunni. Freely consult the wise men around you. Apply your own mind in difficult cases, and seek light from God. Be simple in your living and your habits. Let there be no show or ostentation about you. Lead life as a model Muslim. As you are the leader of the Muslims, justify your leadership by being the best among them all. May God bless you.

Read More

Mahomed Ali Jinnah

Mahomed Ali Jinnah bay 25 December 1876 11 September 1948 was a lawyer politician, and the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah served as leader of the All-India Muslim League from 1913 until Pakistan's independence on 14 August 1947and as Pakistan's first Governor-General from independence until his death. He is revered in Pakistan as Quaid-I-AZ am Great Leader and Baba-I-Qualm Father of the Nation. His birthday is observed as a national holiday. Born in Karachi and trained as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn in London, Jinnah rose to prominence in the Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century. In these early years of his political career, Jinnah advocated Hindu–Muslim unity, helping to shape the 1916 Luck now Pact between the Congress and the All-India Muslim League, a party in which Jinnah had also become prominent. Jinnah became a key leader in the All India Home Rule League, and proposed a fourteen-point constitutional reform plan to safeguard the political rights of Muslims should a united British India become independent. In 1920, however, Jinnah resigned from the Congress when it agreed to follow a campaign of Satyagraha, or non-violent resistance, advocated by the influential leader, Mohandas Gandhi. By 1940, Jinnah had come to believe that Indian Muslims should have their own state. In that year, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation. During the Second World War, the League gained strength while leaders of the Congress were imprisoned, and in the elections held shortly after the war, it won most of the seats reserved for Muslims. Ultimately, the Congress and the Muslim League could not reach a power-sharing formula for a united India, leading all parties to agree to separate independence for a predominately Hindu India, and for a Muslim-majority state, to be called Pakistan. As the first Governor-General of Pakistan, Jinnah worked to establish the new nation's government and policies and to aid the millions of Muslim migrants who had emigrated from the new nation of India to Pakistan after the partition, personally supervising the establishment of refugee camps. Jinnah died at age 71 in September 1948, just over a year after Pakistan gained independence from the British Raj. He left a deep and respected legacy in Pakistan, though he is less well thought of in India. According to his biographer, Stanley Wilbert, he remains Pakistan's greatest leader. Jinnah was born Mahomedali Jinnahbhai most likely in 1876 to Jinnahbhai Poona and his wife Mithibai in a rented apartment on the second floor of Wizard Mansion Karachi Jinnah's birthplace is in Sindh a region today part of Pakistan, but then within the Bombay Presidency of British India. His father was a prosperous Gujarati merchant who had been born to a family of weavers in the village of Paneli in the princely state of Gonadal; his mother was also of that village. They had moved to Karachi about 1875 having married before their departure. Karachi was then enjoying an economic boom: the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 meant it was 200 nautical miles closer to Europe for shipping than Bombay. Jinnah's family was of the Ismailia Kahoka branch of Shi'a Islam though Jinnah later followed the Twelve Shi'a teachings. Jinnah was the second child he had three brothers and three sisters, including his younger sister Fatima Jinnah. The parents were native Gujarati speakers, and the children also came to speak Kutch Sindhi and English Except for Fatima, little is known of his siblings, where they settled or if they met with their brother as he advanced in his legal or political careers As a boy, Jinnah lived for a time in Bombay with an aunt and may have attended the Goal Das Tajo Primary School there, or possibly a madrasa, later on moving to the Cathedral and John Conon School. In Karachi, he attended the Sindh-Madrasa-tul-Islam and the Christian Missionary Society High School. He gained his matriculation from Bombay University at the high school. In his later years and especially after his death, a large number of stories about the boyhood of Pakistan's founder were circulated: that he spent all his spare time at the police court, listening to the proceedings and that he studied his books by the glow of street lights for lack of other illumination.

In 1893 the Jinnahbhai family

His official biographer, Hector Bolitho, writing in 1954 interviewed surviving boyhood associates, and obtained a tale that the young Jinnah discouraged other children from playing marbles in the dusturging them to rise up, keep their hands and clothes clean and play cricket instead. In 1892 Sir Frederick Leigh Croft a business associate of Jinnahbhai Poona offered young Jinnah a London apprenticeship with his firm, Graham's Shipping and Trading Company. He accepted the position despite the opposition of his mother, who before he left, had him enter an arranged marriage with a girl two years his junior from the ancestral village of Panel, Embay Jinnah. Jinnah's mother and first wife both died during his absence in England although the apprenticeship in London was considered a great opportunity for Jinnah, one reason for sending him overseas was a legal proceeding against his father, which placed the family's property at risk of being sequestered by the court. In 1893 the Jinnahbhai family moved to Bombay. Soon after his arrival in London, Jinnah gave up the apprenticeship in order to study law, enraging his father, who had, before his departure, given him enough money to live for three years. The aspiring barrister joined Lincoln's Inn, later stating that the reason he chose Lincoln's over the other Inns of Court was that over the main entrance to Lincoln's Inn were the names of the world's great lawgivers, including Muhammad. Jinnah's biographer Stanley Wilbert notes that there is no such inscription, but instead inside is a mural showing Muhammad and other lawgivers, and speculates that Jinnah may have edited the story in his own mind to avoid mentioning a pictorial depiction which would be offensive to many Muslims. Jinnah's legal education at the Inns of Court followed the apprenticeship system, which had been in force there for centuries. To gain knowledge of the law he followed an established barrister and learned from what he did, as well as from studying law books. During this period, he shortened his name to Muhammad Ali Jinnah. During his student years in England, Jinnah was influenced by 19th-century British liberalism, like many other future Indian independence leaders. This political education included exposure to the idea of the democratic nation, and progressive politics. He became an admirer of the Paris Indian political leaders Dadabhai Nairobi and Sir Pherozeshah Mehta. Nairobi had become the first Member of Parliament of Indian extraction shortly before Jinnah's arrival, triumphing with a majority of three votes in Finsbury Central. Jinnah listened to his maiden speech in the House of Commons from the visitor's gallery. The Western world not only inspired Jinnah in his political life, but also greatly influenced his personal preferences, particularly when it came to dress. Jinnah abandoned Indian garb for Western style clothing and throughout his life he was always impeccably dressed in public.

In 1895 at age 19

He came to own over 200 suits, which he wore with heavily starched shirts with detachable collars, and as a barrister took pride in never wearing the same silk tie twice. Even when he was dying, he insisted on being formally dressed I will not travel in my pajamas. In his later years he was usually seen wearing a Karakul hat which subsequently came to be known as the Jinnah cap Dissatisfied with the law, Jinnah briefly embarked on a stage career with a Shakespearean company, but resigned after receiving a stern letter from his father In 1895, at age 19 he became the youngest Indian to be called to the bar in England Although he returned to Karachi, he remained there only a short time before moving to Bombay. Aged twenty, Jinnah began his practice in Bombay, the only Muslim barrister in the city. English had become his principal language and would remain so throughout his life. His first three years in the law, from 1897 to 1900 brought him few briefs. His first step towards a brighter career occurred when the acting Advocate General of Bombay, John Moles worth MacPherson, invited Jinnah to work from his chambers in 1900, P. H. Distort, a Bombay presidency magistrate left the post temporarily and Jinnah succeeded in getting the interim position. After his six-month appointment period, Jinnah was offered a permanent position on a 1,500 rupee per month salary. Jinnah politely declined the offer, stating that he planned to earn 1,500 rupees a day—a huge sum at that time—which he eventually did Nevertheless, as a lawyer, Jinnah gained fame for his skilled handling of the 1907 Caucus Case. This controversy arose out of Bombay municipal elections, which Indians alleged were rigged by a caucus of Europeans to keep Sir Pherozeshah Mehta out of the council. Jinnah gained great esteem from leading the case for Sir Pherozeshah, himself a noted barrister. Although Jinnah did not win the Caucus Case, he posted a successful record, becoming well known for his advocacy and legal logic. In 1908, his factional foe in the Indian National Congress BAL Gangadhar Tikal was arrested for sedition. Before Tikal unsuccessfully represented himself at trial he engaged Jinnah in an attempt to secure his release on bail. Jinnah did not succeed, but obtained an acquittal for Tikal when he was charged with sedition again in 1916. One of Jinnah's fellow barristers from the Bombay High Court remembered that "Jinnah's faith in him was incredible he recalled that on being admonished by a judge with "Mr. Jinnah, remember that you are not addressing a third-class magistrate" Jinnah shot back My Lord, allow me to warn you that you are not addressing a third-class pleader Another of his fellow barristers described him On 20 February 1947, Attlee announced Mountbatten's appointment, and that Britain would transfer power in India not later than June 1948. Mountbatten took office as Viceroy on 24 March 1947 two days after his arrival in India. By then, the Congress had come around to the idea of partition. Nehru stated in 1960 the truth is that we were tired men and we were getting on in years

Bengal and Punjab

The plan for partition offered a way out and we took it. Leaders of the Congress decided that having loosely tied Muslim-majority provinces as part of a future India was not worth the loss of the powerful government at the center which they desired. However, the Congress insisted that if Pakistan were to become independent, Bengal and Punjab would have to be divided. Mountbatten had been warned in his briefing papers that Jinnah would be his toughest customer who had proved a chronic nuisance because no one in this country India had so far gotten into Jinnah's mind the men met over six days beginning on 5 April. The sessions began lightly when Jinnah, photographed between Louis and Edwina Mountbatten, quipped a rose between two thorns which the Viceroy took, perhaps gratuitously, as evidence that the Muslim leader had pre planned his joke, but had expected the vicereine to stand in the middle. Mountbatten was not favorably impressed with Jinnah, repeatedly expressing frustration to his staff about Jinnah's insistence on Pakistan in the face of all argument. Jinnah feared that at the end of the British presence in India, they would turn control over to the Congress-dominated constituent assembly, putting Muslims at a disadvantage in attempting to win autonomy. He demanded that Mountbatten divide the army prior to independence, which would take at least a year. Mountbatten had hoped that the post-independence arrangements would include a common defense force, but Jinnah saw it as essential that a sovereign state should have its own forces. Mountbatten met with Liquate the day of his final session with Jinnah, and concluded, as he told Attlee and the Cabinet in May, that it had become clear that the Muslim League would resort to arms if Pakistan in some form were not conceded. The Viceroy was also influenced by negative Muslim reaction to the constitutional report of the assembly, which envisioned broad powers for the post-independence central government. On 2 June, the final plan was given by the Viceroy to Indian leaders: on 15 August, the British would turn over power to two dominions. The provinces would vote on whether to continue in the existing constituent assembly, or to have a new one, that is, to join Pakistan. Bengal and Punjab would also vote, both on the question of which assembly to join, and on partition. A boundary commission would determine the final lines in the partitioned provinces. Plebiscites would take place in the North-West Frontier Province which did not have a League government despite an overwhelmingly Muslim population and in the majority-Muslim Sleet district of Assam, adjacent to eastern Bengal. On 3 June, Mountbatten, Nehru, Jinnah and Sikh leader Balder Singh made the formal announcement by radio Jinnah concluded his address with Pakistan indaba long live Pakistan which was not in the script. In the weeks which followed Punjab and Bengal cast the votes which resulted in partition. Sleet and the N.W.F.P. voted to cast their lots with Pakistan a decision joined by the assemblies in Sind and Baluchistan. On 4 July 1947 Liquate asked Mountbatten on Jinnah's behalf to recommend to the British king George VI that Jinnah be appointed Pakistans first governor-general.

State of Pakistan

This request angered Mountbatten, who had hoped to have that position in both dominions-he would be India's first post-independence governor-general—but Jinnah felt that Mountbatten would be likely to favor the new Hindu-majority state because of his closeness to Nehru. In addition, the governor-general would initially be a powerful figure, and Jinnah did not trust anyone else to take that office. Although the Boundary Commission, led by British lawyer Sir Cyril Radcliffe had not yet reported, there were already massive movements of populations between the nations-to-be, as well as sectarian violence. Jinnah arranged to sell his house in Bombay and procured a new one in Karachi. On 7 August, Jinnah, with his sister and close staff, flew from Delhi to Karachi in Mountbatten's plane, and as the plane taxied he was heard to murmur that’s the end of that. On 11 August, he presided over the new constituent assembly for Pakistan at Karachi, and addressed them, You are free you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan You may belong to any religion or caste or creed—that has nothing to do with the business of the State. On 14 August Pakistan became independent; Jinnah led the celebrations in Karachi. One observer wrote, Here indeed is Pakistan's King Emperor, Archbishop of Canterbury, Speaker and Prime Minister concentrated into one formidable Quaid e AZ am. The Radcliffe Commission, dividing Bengal and Punjab, completed its work and reported to Mountbatten on 12 August; the last Viceroy held the maps until the 17th, not wanting to spoil the independence celebrations in both nations. There had already been ethnically charged violence and movement of populations; publication of the Radcliffe Line dividing the new nations sparked mass migration, murder, and ethnic cleansing. Many on the wrong side of the lines fled or were murdered, or murdered others, hoping to make facts on the ground which would reverse the commission's verdict. Radcliffe wrote in his report that he knew that neither side would be happy with his award he declined his fee for the work. Christopher Beaumont, Radcliffe's private secretary, later wrote that Mountbatten "must take the blame—though not the sole blame-for the massacres in the Punjab in which between 500,000 to a million men, women and children perished As many as 14,500,000 people relocated between India and Pakistan during and after partition. Jinnah did what he could for the eight million people who migrated to Pakistan although by now over 70 and frail from lung ailments he travelled across West Pakistan and personally supervised the provision of aid According to Ahmed, What Pakistan needed desperately in those early months was a symbol of the state, one that would unify people and give them the courage and resolve to succeed. Along with Liquate and Abdu Rib Ishtar, Jinnah represented Pakistan's interests in the Division Council to appropriately divide public assets between India and Pakistan Pakistan was supposed to receive one-sixth of the pre-independence government's assets, carefully divided by agreement, even specifying how many sheets of paper each side would receive. The new Indian state, however, was slow to deliver, hoping for the collapse of the nascent Pakistani government, and reunion. Few members of the Indian Civil Service and the Indian Police Service had chosen Pakistan, resulting in staff shortages.

Made in Pakistan

Crop growers found their markets on the other side of an international border. There were shortages of machinery, not all of which was made in Pakistan. In addition to the massive refugee problem, the new government sought to save abandoned crops, establish security in a chaotic situation, and provide basic services. According to economist Yemen Niaz Mohiuddin in her study of Pakistan although Pakistan was born in bloodshed and turmoil it survived in the initial and difficult months after partition only because of the tremendous sacrifices made by its people and the selfless efforts of its great leader. And Indore to accede to Pakistan—these princely states did not border Pakistan, and each had a Hindu-majority population. The coastal princely state of Junagadh, which had a majority-Hindu population, did accede to Pakistan in September 1947 with its ruler's dean, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, personally delivering the accession papers to Jinnah. The Indian army occupied the principality in November, forcing its former leaders, including Bhutto, to flee to Pakistan, beginning the politically powerful Bhutto family. The most contentious of the disputes was, and continues to be, that over the princely state of Kashmir. It had a Muslim-majority population and a Hindu maharaja, Sir Hair Singh, who stalled his decision on which nation to join. With the population in revolt in October 1947, aided by Pakistani irregulars, the maharaja acceded to India; Indian troops were airlifted in. Jinnah objected to this action, and ordered that Pakistani troops move into Kashmir. The Pakistani Army was still commanded by British officers, and the commanding officer, General Sir Douglas Graney, refused the order, stating that he would not move into what he considered the territory of another nation without approval from higher authority, which was not forthcoming. Jinnah withdrew the order. This did not stop the violence there, which has broken into war between India and Pakistan from time to time since. Some historians allege that Jinnah's courting the rulers of Hindu-majority states and his gambit with Junagadh are evidence of ill-intent towards India, as Jinnah had promoted separation by religion, yet tried to gain the accession of Hindu-majority states. In his book Patel: A Life Raj Mohan Gandhi asserts that Jinnah hoped for a plebiscite in Junagadh, knowing Pakistan would lose, in the hope the principle would be established for Kashmir. Despite the United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 issued at India's request for a plebiscite in Kashmir after the withdrawal of Pakistani forces, this has never occurred. In January 1948 the Indian government finally agreed to pay Pakistan its share of British India's assets. They were impelled by Gandhi, who threatened a fast until death. Only days later, Gandhi was assassinated by Natural Gods, a Hindu nationalist, who believed that Gandhi was pro-Muslim? Jinnah made a brief statement of condolence, calling Gandhi one of the greatest men produced by the Hindu community In March, Jinnah, despite his declining health, made his only post-independence visit to East Pakistan. In a speech before a crowd estimated at 300,000, Jinnah stated in English that Urdu alone should be the national language, believing a single language was needed for a nation to remain united.

East Pakistan

The Bengali-speaking people of East Pakistan strongly opposed this policy, and in 1971 the official language issue was a factor in the region's secession to form Bangladesh. From the 1930s Jinnah suffered from tuberculosis only his sister and a few others close to him were aware of his condition. Jinnah believed public knowledge of his lung ailments would hurt him politically. In a 1938 letter, he wrote to a supporter that "you must have read in the papers how during my tours I suffered, which was not because there was anything wrong with me, but the irregularities of the schedule and over-strain told upon my health Many years later, Mountbatten stated that if he had known Jinnah was so ill, he would have stalled, hoping Jinnah's death would avert partition. Fatima Jinnah later wrote, "Even in his hour of triumph, the Quaid-e-As am was gravely ill He worked in a frenzy to consolidate Pakistan. And, of course he totally neglected his health Jinnah worked with a tin of Craven a cigarettes at his desk, of which he had smoked 50 or more a day for the previous 30 years, as well as a box of Cuban cigars. He took longer and longer rest breaks in the private wing of Government House in Karachi, where only he, Fatima and the servants were allowed. In June 1948, he and Fatima flew to Quetta, in the mountains of Baluchistan, where the weather was cooler than in Karachi. He could not completely rest there, addressing the officers at the Command and Staff College saying, "You, along with the other Forces of Pakistan are the custodians of the life property and honor of the people of Pakistan. He returned to Karachi for the 1 July opening ceremony for the State Bank of Pakistan, at which he spoke; a reception by the Canadian trade commissioner that evening in honor of Dominion Day was the last public event he ever attended. On 6 July 1948 Jinnah returned to Quetta, but at the advice of doctors soon journeyed to an even higher retreat at Zia rat. Jinnah had always been reluctant to undergo medical treatment, but realizing his condition, the Pakistani government sent the best doctors it could find to treat him. Tests confirmed tuberculosis, and showed evidence of lung cancer. Jinnah was informed, and asked for full information on his disease and for care in how his sister was told. He was treated with the new miracle drug of streptomycin, but it did not help. Jinnah's condition continued to deteriorate despite the Enid prayers of his people. He was moved to the lower altitude of Quetta on 13 August, the eve of Independence Day for which a statement ghost-written for him was released. Despite an increase in appetite he then weighed just over 36 kilograms 79 lb. it was clear to his doctors that if he was to return to Karachi in life he would have to do so very soon. Jinnah, however, was reluctant to go, not wishing his aides to see him as an invalid on a stretcher. By 9 September Jinnah had also developed pneumonia. Doctors urged him to return to Karachi, where he could receive better care, and with his agreement, he was flown there on 11 September. Dr. Ilia Box his personal physician believed that Jinnah's change of mind was caused by foreknowledge of death. The plane landed at Karachi to be met by Jinnah's limousine, and an ambulance into which Jinnah's stretcher was placed. The ambulance broke down on the road into town, and the Governor-General and those with him waited for another to arrive; he could not be placed in the car as he could not sit up. They waited by the roadside in oppressive heat as trucks and buses passed by, unsuitable for transporting the dying man and with their occupants not knowing of Jinnah's presence. After an hour, the replacement ambulance came, and transported Jinnah to Government House, arriving there over two hours after the landing. Jinnah died at pm at his home in Karachi on 11 September 1948 just over a year after Pakistan's creation. Indian Prime Minister Nehru stated upon Jinnah's death How shall we judge him

I have been very angry with him often during the past years. But now there is no bitterness in my thought of him, only a great sadness for all that has been he succeeded in his quest and gained his objective, but at what a cost and with what a difference from what he had imagined. Jinnah was buried on 12 September 1948 amid official mourning in both India and Pakistan a million people gathered for his funeral. Indian Governor-General Rajagopalachari cancelled an official reception that day, in honor of the late leader. Today, Jinnah rests in a large marble mausoleum Maar-e-Quaid in Karachi. Dina Wada, Jinnah's daughter, remained in India after independence before ultimately settling in New York City. In the 1965 presidential election, Fatima Jinnah, by then known as Madder-e-Millet Mother of the Nation became the presidential candidate of a coalition of political parties that opposed the rule of President Aruba Khan, but was not successful. The Jinnah House in Malabar Hill Bombay, is in the possession of the Government of India but the issue of its ownership has been disputed by the Government of Pakistan Jinnah had personally requested Prime Minister Nehru to preserve the house, hoping one day he could return to Mumbai. There are proposals for the house be offered to the government of Pakistan to establish a consulate in the city as a goodwill gesture, but Dina Wada has also asked for the property. After Jinnah died, his sister Fatima asked the court to execute Jinnah's will under Shia lslam La This subsequently became the part of argument in Pakistan about Jinnah's religious affiliation. Vail Nasr says Jinnah "was an Ismailia by birth and a Twelve Shia by confession though not a religiously observant mankind a 1970 legal challenge, Husain Ali Ganja Wallis claimed Jinnah had converted to Sunni Islam, but the High Court rejected this claim in 1976 effectively accepting the Jinnah family as Shia Publicly Jinnah had a non-sectarian stance and was at pains to gather the Muslims of India under the banner of a general Muslim faith and not under a divisive sectarian identity. In 1970 a Pakistani court decision stated that Jinnah's "secular Muslim faith made him neither Shia nor Sunni and in 1984 the court maintained that "the Quaid was definitely not a Shia Liquate H. Merchant elaborates that he was also not a Sunni, he was simply a Muslim. Jinnah's legacy is Pakistan. According to Mohiuddin, "He was and continues to be as highly honored in Pakistan as first US president George Washington is in the United States Pakistan owes its very existence to his drive tenacity, and judgment Jinnah’s importance in the creation of Pakistan was monumental and immeasurable.Wolpert, giving a speech in honor of Jinnah in 1998, deemed him Pakistan's greatest leader. According to Singh, "With Jinnah's death Pakistan lost its moorings. In India there will not easily arrive another Gandhi, nor in Pakistan another Jinnah. Malik writes, "As long as Jinnah was alive he could persuade and even pressure regional leaders toward greater mutual accommodation, but after his death, the lack of consensus on the distribution of political power and economic resources often turned controversial. According to Mohiuddin, Jinnah's death deprived Pakistan of a leader who could have enhanced stability and democratic governance The rocky road to democracy in Pakistan and the relatively smooth one in India can in some measure be ascribed to Pakistan's tragedy of losing an incorruptible and highly revered leader so soon after independence. Jinnah is depicted on all Pakistani rupee currency and is the namesake of many Pakistani public institutions. The former Quaid I As is International Airport in Karachi, now called the Jinnah International Airport is Pakistan's busiest. One of the largest streets in the Turkish capital Ankara, Cinch Caddies, is named after him, as is the Mohammad Ali Jonah Expressway in Teheran, Iran. The royalist government of Iran also released a stamp commemorating the centennial of Jinnah's birth in 1976. In Chicago a portion of Devon Avenue was named Mohammed Ali Jinnah Way. The Maar e Quaid Jinnah's mausoleum, is among Karachi's landmarks. The Jinnah Tower in Guntur Andhra Pradesh, India, was built to commemorate Jinnah. There is a considerable amount of scholarship on Jinnah which stems from Pakistan according to Akbar S. Ahmed, it is not widely read outside the country and usually avoids even the slightest criticism of Jinnah. According to Ahmed, nearly every book about Jinnah outside Pakistan mentions that he drank alcohol, but this is omitted from books inside Pakistan. Ahmed suggests that depicting the Quaid drinking alcohol would weaken Jinnah's Islamic identity, and by extension, Pakistan's. Some sources allege he gave up alcohol near the end of his life. According to historian Ayesha Jalal, while there is a tendency towards hagiography in the Pakistani view of Jinnah, in India he is viewed negatively Ahmed deems Jinnah "the most maligned person in recent Indian history In India, many see him as the demon who divided the land. Even many Indian Muslims see Jinnah negatively, blaming him for their woes as a minority in that state some historians such as Jalal and H. M. Serve assert that Jinnah never wanted partition of India it was the outcome of the Congress leaders being unwilling to share power with the Muslim League. They contend that Jinnah only used the Pakistan demand in an attempt to mobilize support to obtain significant political rights for Muslims Jinnah has gained the admiration of Indian nationalist politicians such as Lap Krishna Adjani

Read More

Islami Jumhuriya a Pakistan

Pakistan Islamic Jamahiriya pronounced is a sovereign country in South Asia with a population exceeding 180 Million people; it is the sixth most populous country in the world. Located at the crossroads of the strategically important regions of South Asia Central Asia and Western Asia Pakistan has a 1.046 kilometer 650 mi coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Glug of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east Afghanistan to the west and north, Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's narrow WA khan Corridor in the north, and also shares a marine border with Oman. The territory of modern Pakistan was home to several ancient cultures, including the Neolithic Merger and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization and has undergone invasions or settlements by Hindu Persian Indo Greek Islamic Turbo Mongol Afghan and Sikh cultures. The area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Indian Maun Empire the Persian Achaemenid Empire the Arab Umayyad Caliphate the Mongol Empire the Mughal Empire the Duran Empire the Sikh Empire and the British Empire As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Mohammad Ali Jinnah and India’s struggle for independence Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of India where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a dominion Pakistan adopted a new constriction in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic a civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh Pakistan is a federal parliamentary republic consisting of four provinces and four federal territories. It is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similar variation in its geograhyand wildlife. Regional and middle power. Pakistan has the seventh largest standing armed forces in the world and is also a nuclear power as well as a declared nuclear weapons state, being the only nation in the Muslim world, and the second in South Asia, to have that status. It has a semi-industrialized economy which is the 27th largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and 47th largest in terms of nominal GDP.Pakistan's post-independence history has been characterized by periods of military rule, political instability and conflicts with neighboring India. The country continues to face challenging problems, including terrorism, poverty, illiteracy and corruption. It is a founding member of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (now the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Next Eleven Economies, SAARC ECO D8 and the G20 developing nations. The Sonia is an archaeological culture of the Lower Pal Eolithic ca. 1.9 may to 125,000 BC contemporary to the Ache lean. It is named after the Sean Valley in the Visalia Hills, near modern-day Islamabad Rawalpindi, Pakistan. The bearers of this culture were AHSAN in Amidala and Kabala, about 16 kilometers 9.9 mi from Rawalpindi, on the bend of the Sean River hundreds of edged pebble tools were discovered. No human skeletons of this age have yet been found. In the Sean River Gorge many fossil bearing rocks are exposed on the surface. The 14 million year old fossils of gazelle, rhinoceros, crocodile, giraffe and rodents have been found there. Some of these fossils are on display at the Natural History Museum in Islamabad. Merger 7000–5500 BCE on the Kati Plain of Baluchistan is an important Neolithic site discovered in 1974, with early evidence of farming and herding, and dentistry. Early residents lived in mud brick houses; stored grain in granaries, fashioned tools with copper ore cultivated barley, wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. As the civilization progressed 5500-2600 BCE residents began to engage in crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metalworking.

Bactria 180 165 BCE included

The site was occupied continuously until 2600 BCE when climatic changes began to occur. Between 2600 and 2000 BCE, region became more arid and Merger was abandoned in favor of the Indus Valley where a new civilization was in the early stages of development. The Indus Valley Civilization developed between 3300-1700 BCE on the banks of the Indus River. At its peak, the civilization hosted a population of approximately 5 million in hundreds of settlements extending as far as the Arabian Sea, present-day southern and eastern Afghanistan, southeastern Iran and the Himalayas Major urban centers were at Dholavira Kalimantan Harappa LothalMohenjo dare, and Rakhigarhi as well as an offshoot called the Kelli culture 2500-2000 BCEin southern Baluchistan, which had similar settlements, pottery and other artifacts. The civilization collapsed abruptly around 1700 BCE. In the early part of the second millennium BCE, the Rig Vedic civilization existed between the Santa Sindh and Ganges Yamuna rivers. The city of Axilla in northern Pakistan became important to Vedic religion and later in Buddhism. Some of the earliest ancient human civilizations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan. The earliest known inhabitants in the region were Sonia during the Lower Pal Eolithic of whom stone tools have been found in the Sean Valley of Punjab. The Indus region which covers most of Pakistan was the site of several successive ancient cultures including the Neolithic Merger and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization 2800-1800 BCE at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. The Vedic Civilization 1500-500 BCE characterized by Indo Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, which would become well established in the region. Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage center. The Vedic civilization flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, now Axilla in Punjab Successive ancient empires and kingdoms ruled the regio the Persian Achaemenid Empire around 519 BCE Alexander the Great's empire in 326 BCE and the Maura Empire founded by Chandragupta Maura and extended by Asoka the Great until 185 BCE The Indo Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria 180 165 BCE included Gadara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander 165-150 BCE prospering the Greco Buddhist culture in the region. Axilla had one of the earliest universities and centers of higher education in the world. The Medieval period 642-1219 CE is defined by the spread of Islam in the region. During this period, Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional Buddhist and Hindu population to Islam. The Ray Dynasty 489-632 CE of Sindh, at its zenith ruled this region and the surrounding territories.

First Kashmir War

The Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist Empire that under Dharampala and Deva Pala stretched across Indian subcontinent from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan and later to Mambo region in Afghanistan. The Arab general Muhammad bin Passim conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab in 711CE The Pakistan government's official chronology identifies this as the point where the foundation of Pakistan was laid. This conquest set the stage for the rule of several successive Muslim empires in the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire 975-1187 CE the Gored Kingdom and the Delhi Sultanate 1206-1526 CE The Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire 1526–1857 CE The Mughals introduced Persian literature and high Muhammad Ali Jinnah,, the founder and first Governor General of Pakistan, delivering the opening address of the 1947 Constitutional Assembly, explaining the foundations for the new state of Pakistan. The gradual decline of the Mughal Empire in the early eighteenth century enabled Sikh rulers to control large areas until the British East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia. The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Espy Mutiny, was the region's major armed struggle against the British. The largely non-violent freedom struggle led by the Indian National Congress engaged millions of protesters in mass campaigns of civil disobedience in the 1920s and 1930s. The All-India Muslim League rose to popularity in the late 1930s amid fears of under-representation and neglect of Muslims in politics. In his presidential address of 29 December 1930 Muhammad Irbil called for "the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State" consisting of Punjab North-West Frontier Province Sind and Baluchistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan espoused the two-nation theory and led the Muslim League to adopt the Lahore Resolution of 1940, popularly known as the Pakistan Resolution. In early 1947 Britain announced the decision to end its rule in India. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders of British India including Jawaharlal Nehru and Abu Kalama Azad representing the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs—agreed to the proposed terms of transfer of power and independence. The modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 27 Ramadan 1366 in the Islamic Calendar in the eastern and northwestern regions of British India, where there was a Muslim majority. It comprised the provinces of Baluchistan, East Bengal, the North West Frontier Province, West Punjab and Sindh. The partition of the Punjab and Bengal provinces led to communal riots across India and Pakistan; millions of Muslims moved to Pakistan and millions of Hindus and Sikhs moved to India. Dispute over Jammu and Kashmir led to the First Kashmir War After independence, the President of the Muslim League Mohammed Ali Jinnah, became the new nation's first Governor-General, and the Secretary General of the Muslim League, Nawabzada Liquate Ali Khan became the first Prime Minister. From 1947 to 1956, Pakistan was a dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations under two monarchs In 1947 King George VI relinquished the title of Emperor of India and became King of Pakistan. He retained that title until his death on 6 February 1952 after which Queen Elizabeth II became Queen of Pakistan. She retained that title until Pakistan became an Islamic and Parliamentary republic in 1956 but civilian rule was stalled by a military coup led by the Army Commander in Chief, General Aye Khan. The country experienced exceptional growth until a second war with India took place in 1965 and led to economic downfall and internal instability Aye Khan's successor, General Yahiya Khan President from 1969 to 1971had to deal with a devastating cyclone which caused 500 000 deaths in East Pakistan. In 1970 Pakistan held its first democratic elections since independence, that were meant to mark a transition from military rule to democracy, but after the East Pakistani Awaji League won, Yahiya Khan and the ruling elite in West Pakistan refused to hand over power There was civil unrest in the East, and the Pakistan Army launched a military operation on 25 March 1971 aiming to regain control of the province. The genocide carried out during this operation led to a declaration of independence and to the waging of a war of liberation by the Bengali Mufti Tahini forces in East Pakistan, with support from India However, in West Pakistan the conflict was described as a Civil War as opposed to War of Liberation. Independent estimates of civilian deaths during this period range from 300,000 to 3 million Attacks on Indian military bases by the Pakistan Air Force in December 1971 sparked the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 which ended with the formal secession of East Pakistan as the independent state of Bangladesh. With Pakistan's defeat in the war, Yahiya Khan was replaced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as Chief Martial Law Administrator. Civilian rule resumed from 1972 to 1977 during this period Pakistan began to build nuclear weapons; the country's first atomic power plant was inaugurated in 1972.Civilian rule ended with a military coup in 1977, and in 1979 General Zia-up-Haq became the third military president. Military government lasted until 1988, during which Pakistan became one of the fastest-growing economies in South Asia. Zia consolidated nuclear development and increased Islamization of the state. During this period, Pakistan helped to subsidies and distributes US resources to factions of the Mujahedeen movement against the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto

Zia died in a plane crash in 1988 and Benazir Bhutto daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was elected as the first female Prime Minister of Pakistan. She was followed by Nawaz Sharif, and over the next decade the two leaders fought for power, alternating in office while the country's situation worsened; economic indicators fell sharply, in contrast to the 1980s. This period is marked by political instability, misgovernance and corruption. In May 1998, while Sharif was Prime Minister, India tested five nuclear weapons and tension with India heightened to an extreme: Pakistan detonated six nuclear weapons of its own in the Chiai-I and Chiai-II tests later in the same month. Military tension between the two countries in the Kirgiz district led to the Kirgiz War of 1999, after which General Pervez Musharraf took over through a bloodless coup d'état and assumed vast executive powers. Musharraf ruled Pakistan as head of state from 1999 to 2001 and as President from 2001 to 2008a period of extensive economic reform and Pakistan's involvement in the US-led war on terrorism. On 15 November 2007, Pakistan's National Assembly became the first to complete its full five-year term, and new elections were called. After the assassination of Benazir Bhutto in December 2007, her Pakistan People’s Party PPP won the largest number of seats in the 2008 elections, and party member Youssef Raze Gillian was sworn in as Prime Minister. Musharraf resigned from the presidency on 18 August 2008 when threatened with impeachment, and was succeeded by As if Ali Zadora, the current President.Gillani was disqualified from membership of parliament and as prime minister by the Supreme Court of Pakistan in June 2012.By its own estimates, Pakistan's involvement in the war on terrorism has cost up to $67.93 billion thousands of casualties and nearly 3 million displaced civilians. The Pakistani general election of 2013 saw the Pakistan Muslim League Achieve a majority, following which Nawaz Sharif became elected as the Prime Minister of Pakistan, returning to the post for the third time after fourteen years, in a democratic transition. Pakistan is a democratic parliamentary federal republic with Islam as the state religion. The first Constitution of Pakistan was adopted in 1956 but suspended by Aye Khan in 1958. The Constitution of 1973 suspended by Zia-up-Haq in 1977 but reinstated in 1985 is the country's most important document, laying the foundations of the current government. The bicameral legislature comprises a 100-member Senate and a 342-member National Assembly. Members of the National Assembly are elected through the first-past-the-post system under universal adult suffrage representing electoral districts known as National Assembly constituencies. According to the constitution, the 70 seats reserved for women and religious minorities are allocated to the political parties according to their proportional representation. The president who is elected by an electoral college is the ceremonial head of the state and is the civilian commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Armed Forces (with Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee as its principal military adviser), but military appointments and key confirmations in the armed forces are made by the prime minister after reviewing the reports on their merit and performances. Almost all appointed officers in the judicial branches, military chiefs, chairman and branches, and legislatures require the executive confirmation from the prime minister, whom the President must consult, by law. However, the powers to pardon and grant clemency vest with the President of Pakistan. The prime minister is usually the leader of the largest party or a coalition in the National Assembly. He serves as the head of government and is designated to exercise as the country's chief executive. The premier is responsible for appointing a cabinet consisting of ministers and advisors as well as running the government operations, taking and authorizing executive decisions, appointments and recommendations that require executive confirmation of the Prime Minister. Each of the four provinces has a similar system of government, with a directly elected Provincial Assembly in which the leader of the largest party or coalition is elected Chief Minister. Chief Ministers oversees the provincial government and head the provincial cabinet; it is common in Pakistan to have different ruling parties or coalitions in the provinces. The provincial assemblies have power to make laws and approve provincial budget which is commonly presented by the provincial finance minister every fiscal year. Provincial governors who play role as the ceremonial head of province are appointed by the President

.

power Pakistan

The Pakistani military establishment has played an influential role in mainstream politics throughout Pakistan's political history. Presidents brought in by military coups ruled in 1958.1971 1977 1988 and 1999.2008.Pakistan is the second largest Muslim country after Indonesia and its status as a declared nuclear power, being the only Islamic nation to have that status, plays a part in its international role. Pakistan has a fierce independent foreign policy especially when it comes to issues such as development of nuclear weapons construction of nuclear reactors, foreign military purchases and other issues that are vital to its national interests. Pakistan has a strategic geo-political location at the corridor of world major maritime oil supply lines, and has close proximity to the resource and oil rich central Asian countries. Pakistan is an important member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation OIC is ranked by the US as a major non-NATO ally in the war against terrorism, and has a highly disciplined military, which is the world's eighth-largest standing military force. Pakistan's foreign policy focuses on security against threats to national identity and territorial integrity, and on the cultivation of close relations with Muslim countries. A 2004 briefing on foreign policy for Pakistani Parliamentarians says, "Pakistan highlights sovereign equality of states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-interference in each other's domestic affairs as the cardinal features of its foreign policy. The country is an active member of the United Nations. It is a founding member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation Oilcan which it has promoted Musharraf's concept of Enlightened Moderation Pakistan is also a member of Commonwealth of Nations the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Sarthe Economic Cooperation Organization ECO and the G20 developing nations. India's nuclear tests were seen as a threat to Pakistan and led it to establish itself as a nuclear power Pakistan now maintains a policy of credible minimum deterrence. Pakistan maintains good relations with all Arab and most other Muslim countries. Since the Sino-Indian War of 1962 Pakistan's closest strategic, military and economically has been China. The relationship has survived changes of governments and variations in the regional and global situation. Chinese cooperation with Pakistan has reached economic high points, with substantial Chinese investment in Pakistan's infrastructural expansion including the Pakistani deep-water port at Gadara. Both countries have an ongoing free trade agreement. Pakistan has served as China's main bridge between Muslim countries. Pakistan also played an important role in bridging the communication gap between China and the West by facilitating the 1972 Nixon visit to China. Pakistan and India continue to be rivals. The Kashmir conflict remains the major point of rift; three of their four wars were over this territory. Pakistan has had mixed relations with the United States. As an anti-Soviet power in the 1950s and during Soviet Afghan War in the 1980s Pakistan was one of the closest allies of the US but relations soured in the 1990s when the US imposed sanctions because of Pakistan's possession and testing of nuclear weapons.

Read More

Muhammad Irbil

Muhammad Irbil Sir 09 November 1877 -21 April 1938 also Known as a llama known as was a Philosopher poet and pliitcianin British India was who is widely regarded as having inspired the Pakistan Movement. He is considered one of the most important figures in Urdu literature with literary work in both the Urdu and Persian languages. Irbil is admired as a prominent classical poet by Pakistani Iranian Indian and other international scholars of literature. Though Irbil is best known as an eminent poet, he is also a highly acclaimed Muslim philosophical thinker of modern times His first poetry book Assar e Khaki appeared in the Persian language in 1915 and other books of poetry include Rumpus IBekhudi pave I Mash rig and Zebus I Anima Amongst these is best known Urdu works are Bang I Dare Ball I Jabil Zebra I Kalmia and a part ofArmughan e Hejaz In Iran and Afghanistan he is famous as Irbil e Lahore Irbil of Lahore. And he is most appreciated for his Persian work Along with his Urdu and Persian poetry his various Urdu and English lectures and letters have been very influential in cultural social religious and political disputes over the years. In 1922, he was knighted by King George giving him the title Sir. While studying law and philosophy in England Irbil became a member of the London branch of the All India Muslim League. Later, in one of his most famous speeches, Irbil pushed for the creation of a Muslim state in Northwest India. This took place in his presidential speech in the League's December 1930 session. He was very close to the founder of Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah In much of Southern Asia and Urdu speaking world, Irbil is regarded as the Shari e Mashie Poet of the East. He is also called Muffakir e Pakistan. The Thinker of Pakistan and Hakeem-up-Unmet the Sage of the UmmahThe Pakistan government officially named him a national poet His birthday Yom-e Welded-e Muhammad Irbil or Igbos Day is a public holiday in Pakistan. In India he is also remembered as the author of the popular patriotic song Saharan Se Accra quall was four years old when he was admitted to the mosque for learning the Qur’an he learned the Arabic language from his teacher Syed Mir Hassan. The head of the madrassa and professor of Arabic language at Scotch Mission College in Sialkot, where Iqbal completed matriculation in 1893. He received lntermediatewith the Faculty of Arts diploma from Murray College Sialkot in 1895. The same year he qualified for Bachelor of Arts in philosophy English literature and Arabic as his subjects from Government College Lahore in 1897 and won the Khan Bahadurddin F.S. Jalaluddin medal as he took higher numbers in Arabic class. In 1899 he received Masters of Arts degree from the same college and had the first place in Punjab University Lahore. Irbil was born in Sialkot on 9 November 1877 within the Punjab province of British India now in Pakistan. His grandparents Pundit Kahayan Lap Sapura and Indiana Sapura were Kashmiri pundits the Brahmins of the Sapura clan from Kashmir who converted to Islam. In the 19th century, when Sikhs were taking over rule of Kashmir his grandfather's family migrated to Punjab. Irbil often mentioned and commemorated about his Kashmiri Pundit Brahmin lineage in his writings.

In 1905 traveled to England

He received Intermediate with the Faculty of Arts diploma from Murray College Sialkot in 1895. The same year he qualified for Bachelor of Arts in philosophy English literature literature and Arabic as his subjects from Government College Lahore in 1897 and won the Khan Bahadurddin F.S. Jalaluddin medal as he took higher numbers in Arabic class. In 1899 Irbil was influenced by the teachings of Sir Thomas Arnold, his philosophy teacher at Government college Lahore, Arnold's teachings determined Irbil to pursue higher education in West. In 1905, he traveled to England for his higher education. Irbil qualified for a scholarship from Trinity College in Cambridge and obtained Bachelor of Arts in 1906, and in the same year he was called to the bar as a barrister from Lincoln s Inn. In 1907, Irbil moved to Germany to study doctorate and earned PhD degree from the Ludwig Maximilian University Munich in 1908. Working under the guidance of Friedrich Hummel, Iqbal published his doctoral thesis in 1908 entitled The Development if Metaphysics in Persia. During Iqbal's stay in Heidelberg, Germany in 1907 his German teacher Emma Wegenast taught him about Goethe s Faust Heine and Nietzsche. During his study in Europe Iqbal began to write poetry in Persian. He prioritized it because he believed he had found an easy way to express his thoughts. He would write continuously in Persian throughout his life in 1933, after returning from a trip to Spain and Afghanistan, Iqbal had suffered from a mysterious throat illness. He spent his final years helping Chaudire Naas Ali Khan to establish the Dar up Islam Trust Institute at Jabalpur estate near pathankot. Where studies in classical Islam and contemporary social science were plan to be subsidized, and Iqbal also advocated the demand for an independent Muslim state. Iqbal ceased practicing law in 1934 and was granted pension by the Nawaz of Bhopal. In his final years he frequently visited the Dorgan of famous Sufi Hazard Ali Haywire in Lahore for spiritual guidance. After suffering for months from his illness, Iqbal died in Lahore on 21 April 1938. His tomb is located in Azure Bag. The enclosed garden between the entrance of the Badshahi Mosque and the Lahore Fort. And official guards are provided by the Government of pakistan.Iqbal is commemorated widely in Pakistan, where he is regarded as the ideological founder of the state. His Taren e Hind is a song that is widely used in India as a patriotic song speaking of communal harmony. His birthday is annually commemorated in Pakistan as Iqbai Day a national holiday. Irbil is the namesake of many public institutions, including the A llama Irbil Campus Punjab University in Lahore.

Read More

Omar Khayyam

Ghiyath ad Din Abu AB l Umar Ibn Ibrahim al kayak Nishäpüri 18 May 1048. 4 December 1131 Persian pronounced was a Persian polymath philosopher mathematician astronomer and poet. He also wrote treatises on mechanics geography mineralogy music and Islamic theology. Born in Nishapur at a young age he moved to Samarkand and obtained his education there. Afterwards he moved to Bukhara and became established as one of the major mathematicians and astronomers of the medieval period. He is the author of one of the most important treatises on algebra written before modern times the Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra which includes a geometric method for solving cubic equations by intersecting hyperbola with a circle. He contributed to a calendar reform. His significance as a philosopher and teacher, and his few remaining philosophical works, has not received the same attention as his scientific and poetic writings. Al Zamakhshari referred to him as the philosopher of the world. Many sources have testified that he taught for decades the philosophy of Avicenna in Nishapur where Khayyam was born and buried and where his mausoleum today remains a masterpiece of Iranian architecture visited by many people every year. Outside Iran and Persian speaking countries, Khayyam has had an impact on literature and societies through the translation of his works and popularization by other scholars. The greatest such impact was in English-speaking countries; the English scholar Thomas Hyde 1636.1703 was the first non-Persian to study him. The most influential of all was Edward FitzGerald 1809–83 who made Khayyam the most famous poet of the East in the West through his celebrated translation and adaptations of Khayyam’s rather small number of quatrains Persian in the Rubbia of Omar. Omar Khayyam died in 1131 and is buried in the Khayyam Garden at the mausoleum of Imamzadeh Mahout in Nishapur. In 1963 the mausoleum of Khayyam was constructed on the site by Hooting Siphon. Ghiyath ad Din means the Shoulder of the Faith and implies the knowledge of the Quran Abu’s Fatah Umar Ibn Ibrahim - Abu means father, Fatah means conqueror, 'Umar means life Ibrahim is the name of the father. Khayyam means tent maker it is a byname derived from the father's craft. Nīshāpūrī is the link to his hometown of Nishapur Ghiyāth ad Din Abu’s Fatah Umar ibn Ibrahim al-Khayyam Nīshāpūrī Persian was born in Nishapur, modern-day Iran but then a Seliuqcapital in Khorana which rivaled Cairo or Baghdad in cultural prominence in that era.

Malik Shah

He is thought to have been born into a family of tent-makers which he would make into a play on words later in life Khayyam who stitched the tents of science Has fallen in grief's furnace and been suddenly burned, The shears of Fate have cut the tent ropes of his life And the broker of Hope has sold him for nothing. He spent part of his childhood in the town of Balkh in present-day northern Afghanistan studying under the well-known scholar Sheikh Muhammad Mansur. He later studied under Imam Mowaffaq Nishapuri, who was considered one of the greatest teachers of the Khorana region. Throughout his life Omar Khayyam was tireless in his efforts; by day he would teach algebra and geometry, in the evening he would attend the Seljuk court as an adviser of Malik Shah and at night he would study astronomy and complete important aspects of the Jalal calendar. Omar Khayyam’s years in Isfahan were very productive ones, but after the death of the Seljuk Sultan Malik Shah presumably by the Assassins sect the Sultan's widow turned against him as an adviser, and as a result, he soon set out on his Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina. He was then allowed to work as a court astrologer, and was permitted to return to Nishapur, where he was renowned for his works, and continued to teach mathematics, astronomy and even medicine. Khayyam Islander was famous during his times as a mathematician. He wrote the influential Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra 1070 which laid down the principles of algebra part of the body of Persian Mathematics that was eventually transmitted to Europe. In particular, he derived general methods for solving cubic equations and even some higher orders. Cubic equation and intersection of conic sections the first page of two-chaptered manuscript kept in Tehran University in the Treatise he wrote on the triangular array of binomial coefficients known as Pascal. In 1077 Khayyam wrote Shah ma acicula min musadarat kitbag Unlades (Explanations of the Difficulties in the Postulates of Euclid) published in English as "On the Difficulties of Euclid's Definitions An important part of the book is concerned with Euclid's famous parallel postulate, which attracted the interest of Thabo ibn Quran Al Chatham had previously attempted a demonstration of the postulate; Khayyam’s attempt was a distinct advance, and his criticisms made their way to Europe, and may have contributed to the eventual development of non-Euclidean geometry. Omar Khayyam created important works on geometry specifically on the theory of proportions. His notable contemporary mathematicians included Al Khaziniand Abu Hakim al Mustafa ibn Ismail al Isfizari Khayyam wrote a book entitled Explanations of the difficulties in the postulates in Euclid's Elements. The book consists of several sections on the parallel postulate Book I on the Euclidean definition of ratios and the Anthyphairtic ratio modern continued fractions Book and on the multiplication of ratios Book III.The first section is a treatise containing some propositions and lemmas concerning the parallel postulate. It has reached the Western world from a reproduction in a manuscript written in 1387 88 AD by the Persian mathematician Tutsi.

Khayyam’s work

Tutsi mentions explicitly that he re-writes the treatise in Khayyam’s own words and quotes Khayyam, saying that "they are worth adding to Euclid's Elements first book after Proposition 28 This proposition states a condition enough for having two lines in plane parallel to one another. After this proposition follows another, numbered 29 which is converse to the previous one the proof of Euclid uses the so called parallel postulate numbered 5 Objection to the use of parallel postulate and alternative view of proposition 29 have been a major problem in foundation of what is now called non-Euclidean geometry.The treatise of Khayyam can be considered as the first treatment of parallels axiom which is not based on petition principia but on a more intuitive postulate. Khayyam refutes the previous attempts by other Greek and Persian mathematicians to prove the proposition. And he, as Aristotle, refuses the use of motion in geometry and therefore dismisses the different by Ibn Hay ham too in a sense he made the first attempt at formulating a non-Euclidean postulate as an alternative to the parallel postulate. This philosophical view of mathematics see below has had a significant impact on Khayyam’s celebrated approach and method in geometric algebra and in particular in solving cubic equations. In that his solution is not a direct path to a numerical solution and in fact his solutions are not numbers but rather line segmenting this regard Khayyam’s work can be considered the first systematic study and the first exact method of solving cubic equations. In an untitled writing on cubic equations by Khayyam discovered in the 20th century where the above quote appears, Khayyam works on problems of geometric algebra. First is the problem of finding a point on a quadrant of a circle such that when a normal is dropped from the point to one of the bounding radii the ratio of the formal’s length to that of the radius equals the ratio of the segments determined by the foot of the normal. Again in solving this problem, he reduces it to another geometric problem find a right triangle having the property that the hypotenuse equals the sum of one leg i.e. side plus the altitude on the hypotenuse. To solve this geometric problem, he specializes a parameter and reaches the cubic equation . Indeed, he finds a positive root for this equation by intersecting a hyperbola with a circle. This particular geometric solution of cubic equations has been further investigated and extended to degree four equations. Regarding more general equations he states that the solution of cubic equations requires the use of conic sections and that it cannot be solved by ruler and compass methods. A proof of this impossibility was only plausible 750 years after Khayyam died. In this paper Khayyam mentions his will to prepare a paper giving full solution to cubic equations If the opportunity arises and I can succeed, I shall give all these fourteen forms with all their branches and cases, and how to distinguish whatever is possible or impossible so that a paper, containing elements which are greatly useful in this art will be prepared. This refers to the book Treatise on Demonstrations of Problems of Algebra 1070 which laid down the principles of algebra, part of the body of Persian Mathematics that was eventually transmitted to Europe. In particular, he derived general methods for solving cubic equations and even some higher orders.

Read More