Unman ibn Afghan

Unman ibn Afghan 577 20 June 656 was one of the companions of Islamic prophet Muhammad. He played a major role in early Islamic history as the third of the Sunni Rash dun or Rightly Guided Caliphs.Uthman was born into the Umayyad clan of Mecca a powerful family of the Quash tribe. He was a companion of Muhammad who assumed the role of leader caliph of the Muslim Empire at the age of 65 following Umar ibn al Kata. Under his leadership Uthman was born in Ta’if, which is situated on a hill, and the presumptions that he was born during the summer months, since wealthy McCann’s usually spent the hot summers in the cooler climate of Ta’if. He was born into the wealthy Umayyad Bane Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca, seven years after Muhammad. Othman’s father, Affan, died young while travelling abroad but left a large inheritance to Uthman. Uthman followed the same profession as his father, and his business flourished, making him one of the richest men among the Qurayshi tribe. the empire expanded into Fars in 650 present day Iran some areas of Khorana present day Afghanistan in 651 and the conquest of Armenia was begun in the 640s Some of Uthman's notable achievements were the economic reforms he introduced, and the compilation of the Qur'an into the unified, authoritative text that is known today. Uthman was born in Ta if which is situated on a hill, and the presumption is that he was born during the summer months since wealthy McCann’s usually spent the hot summers in the cooler climate of Ta’if. He was born into the wealthy Umayyad Bane Umayyad clan of the Quays tribe of Mecca, seven years after Muhammad. Uthman's father, Affan, died young while travelling abroad but left a large inheritance to Uthman. Uthman followed the same profession as his father, and his business flourished, making him one of the richest men among the Qurayshi tribe

Uthman ibn Affan r. 644,656

The Umayyad Caliphate trans. AlḪilāfa al umawiyya was the second of the four major Islamic caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was centered on the Umayyad al Umawiyyun or Bane Umayyad Sons of Umayyad hailing from Mecca. The Umayyad family had first come to power under the third Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan r. 644,656 but the Umayyad regime was founded by Muawiya ibn Abe Sofia, long-time governor of Syria after the end of the First Muslim Civil War in 661 CE-41 AH. Syria remained the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital. The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sind, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula Al-Andalusia into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.79 million square miles 15,000,000 km making it the largest empire the world had yet seen, and the fifth largest ever to exist. At the time, the Umayyad taxation and administrative practice were perceived as unjust by some Muslims. While the non-Muslim population had autonomy, their judicial matters were dealt with in accordance with their own laws and by their own religious heads or their appointees. They paid a poll tax for policing to the central state. Muhammad had stated explicitly during his lifetime that each religious minority should be allowed to practice its own religion and govern itself and the policy had on the whole continued The Welfare state for both the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor started by Omar had also continued. Muawiya's wife Maysum Yazid's mother was also a Christian. The relations between the Muslims and the Christians in the state were good. The Umayyads were involved in frequent battles with the Christian Byzantines without being concerned with protecting their rear in Syria which had remained largely Christian like many other parts of the empire. Prominent positions were held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious tolerance that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, especially in Syria. This policy also boosted his popularity and solidified Syria as his power base. The rivalries between the Arab tribes had caused unrest in the provinces outside Syria, most notably in the Second Muslim Civil War of 680–692 CE and the Berber Revolt of 740–743 CE. During the Second Civil War, leadership of the Umayyad clan shifted from the Sufyanid branch of the family to the Marwan branch. As the constant campaigning exhausted the resources and manpower of the state, the Umayyad’s, weakened by the Third Muslim Civil War of 744–747 CE, were finally toppled by the Abbasid Revolution in 750 CE/132 AH. A branch of the family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalusia, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the Fiona of al-Andalusia. According to tradition, the Umayyad family also known as the Bane Bad-Shams and Muhammad both descended from a common ancestor, Bad Manna ibn Qusai and they are originally from the city of Mecca. Muhammad descended from Abd Manna via his son has him, while the Umayyad’s descended from Bad Manna via a different son, Bad-Shams, whose son was Umayyad. The two families are therefore considered to be different clans those of has him and of Umayyad, respectively) of the same tribe (that of the Quash. However Muslim Shia historians point out that Umayyad was an adopted son of Bad Shams so he was not a blood relative of Bad Manna ibn Qusai. Umayyad was later discarded from the noble family While the Umayyad’s and the Hashemite’s may have had bitterness between the two clans before Muhammad, the rivalry turned into a severe case of tribal animosity after the Battle of Bard. The battle saw three top leaders of the Umayyad clan Tuba ibn Rebekah, Walled ibn Utah and Shay bah killed by Hashemite’s Ali, Hama ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib and Ubaydah ibn al-Hadith in a three-on-three melee. This fueled the opposition of Abu Sofia ibn Harb, the grandson of Umayya, to Muhammad and to Islam. Abu Sofia sought to exterminate the adherents of the new religion by waging another battle with Muslims based in Medina only a year after the Battle of Bard. He did this to avenge the defeat at Bard. The Battle of Uhud is generally believed by scholars to be the first defeat for the Muslims, as they had incurred greater losses than the McCann’s. After the battle, Abu Sofia’s wife Hind, who was also the daughter of Tuba ibn Rebekah, is reported to have cut open the corpse of Hama, taking out his liver which she then attempted to eat. Within five years after his defeat in the Battle of Ehud however, Muhammad took control of Mecca and announced a general amnesty for all. Abu Sofia and his wife Hind embraced Islam on the eve of the conquest of Mecca, as did their son the future caliph Muawiyah

Most historians consider Caliph Muawiyah 661 80to have been the second ruler of the Umayyad dynasty, even though he was the first to assert the Umayyad’s' right to rule on a dynastic principle. It was really the caliphate of Othman Ibn Afghan 644-656 a member of Umayyad clan himself that witnessed the revival and then the ascendancy of the Umayyad clan to the corridors of power. Othman placed some of the trusted members of his clan at prominent and strong positions throughout the state. Most notable was the appointment of Marwan ibn al Hakim, Othman’s first cousin, as his top advisor, which created a stir amongst the Hashemite companions of Muhammad, as Marwan along with his father Al-Hakim ibn Abe al-'As had been permanently exiled from Medina by Muhammad during his lifetime. Othman also appointed Walled ibn Unbar, Othman’s half-brother, as the governor of Kufa, who was accused, by Hash mites, of leading prayer while under the influence of alcohol.[15] Othman also consolidated Muawiyah's governorship of Syria by granting him control over a larger area and appointed his foster brother Abdullah ibn Sad as the Governor of Egypt. However, since Othman never named an heir, he cannot be considered the founder of a dynasty. In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor Abu Obadiah ibn al-Jar rah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people. To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah I set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean. Muawiyah I was a very successful governor and built up a very loyal and disciplined army from the old Roman Syrian army. He also befriended Arm ibn al-As who had conquered Egypt but was removed by Othman in al-Afghan.

Quran and Muhammad

The Quran and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the The Farewell Sermon. Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area. Previously, the second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt that a governor or the commander was becoming attracted to wealth, he had him removed from his position. Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they may get away from the worship of God and become attracted to wealth and start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties. As Othman ibn al-Afghan became very old, Marwan I a relative of Muawiyah I slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. In 656, Muhammad ibn Abe Bark the son of Abu Bark and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abe Talia and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadie showed some Egyptians, the house of Othman ibn al-Afghan. Later the Egyptians ended up killing after the assassination of Othman in 656, Ali, a member of the Quraysh tribe and the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was elected as the caliph. He soon met with resistance from several factions, owing to his relative political inexperience. Ali moved his capital from Medina to Kura. The resulting conflict, which lasted from 656 until 661, is known as the First Fiona civil war. Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Othman ibn al-Afghan and Marwan I wanted the culprits arrested. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict. Aisha, the wife of Muhammad, and Talhah and Al-Sugary, two of the companions of Muhammad when to Basra to tell Ali to arrest the culprits who murdered Othman. Marwan I and other people who wanted conflict manipulated everyone to fight. The two sides clashed at the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali won a decisive victory.

Following this battle, Ali fought a battle against Muawiyah, known as the Battle of Stiffen. The battle was stopped before either side had achieved victory, or the two parties agreed to arbitrate their dispute. After the battle Arm ibn al-As was appointed by Muawiyah and an arbitrator and Ali appointed Abu Musa Atari. Seven months later the two arbitrators met at Adhere about 10 miles north west of Man in Jordon in February 658. Arm ibn al-As convinced Abu Musa Atari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and new Caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the decision which had lowered the Caliph to the status of the rebellious Muawiyah I. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Arm. Ali refused to accept the verdict and found himself technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the arbitration. This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own supporters. The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire the Kharijites. They broke away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan, arbitration belongs to God alone. This group came to be known as the Kharijites those who leave. In 659 Ali's forces and the Kharijites met in the Ali was assassinated in 661, by a Kharijite partisan. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Has an ibn Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and as a peacemaker, the fourth Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and the Second Imam for the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the Hasan-Muawiya treaty, Has an ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death he does not establish a dynasty. This brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Has an ibn Ali was also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following this, Mu'awiyah broke the conditions of the agreement and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus. After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the Second Fitna. After making everyone else fight, the Umayyad dynasty later fell into the hands of Marwan I who was also an Umayyad. Syria would remain the base of Umayyad power until the end of the dynasty in 750. However, this Dynasty became reborn in Cordoba Al Andalusia, today's Portugal and Spain in the form of an Emirate and then a Caliphate, lasting until 1031 AD. Muslim rule continued in Iberia for another 500 years in several forms: Taigas, Berber kingdoms, and under the Kingdom of Granada until the 16th century. In the year 712 Muhammad bin Qasim, an Umayyad general sailed from the chalet into Sindh in Pakistan and conquered both the Sindh and the Punjab regions along the Indus River. The conquest of Sindh and Punjab, in modern day Pakistan, although costly, were major gains for the Umayyad Caliphate. However, further gains were halted by Hindu Kingdoms in India in the battle of Rajasthan. The Arabs tried to invade India but they were defeated by the north Indian king Nagabhata of the Prather Dynasty and by the south Indian Emperor Vikramaditya of the Chalky dynasty in the early 8th century. After this the Arab chroniclers admit that the Caliph Mahdi “gave up the project of conquering any part of India. During the later period of its existence and particularly from 1031 AD under the Ta'ifa system of Islamic Emirates in the southern half of Iberia, the Emirate, Sultanate of Granada maintained its independence largely due to the payment of Tributes to the northern Christian Kingdoms which began to gradually expand south at its expense from 1031. Muslim rule in Iberia came to an end on January 2, 1492 with the conquest of the Naiad kingdom of Granada. The last Muslim ruler of Granada, Muhammad. Better known as Boabdil, surrendered his kingdom to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the Catholic Monarchs, los Reyes Catholicons. Muawiyah's personal dynasty, the Sufyanids descendants of Abu Sufyan reigned from 661 to 684, until his grandson Muawiya II. The reign of Muawiyah I was marked by internal security and external expansion. On the internal front, only one major rebellion is recorded, that of Hour ibn Aid in Kura. Hour ibn Aid supported the claims of the descendants of Ali to Muawiyah also encouraged peaceful coexistence with the Christian communities of Syria, granting his reign with "peace and prosperity for Christians and Arabs alike",[43] and one of his closest advisers was Serum, the father of John of Damascus. At the same time, he waged unceasing war against the Byzantine Roman Empire. During his reign, Rhodes and Crete were occupied, and several assaults were launched against Constantinople. After their failure, and faced with a large-scale Christian uprising in the form of the Mediates, Muawiyah concluded a peace with Byzantium. Muawiyah also oversaw military expansion in North Africa the foundation of Kairouan and in Central Asia Following Muawiyah's death in 680 he was succeeded by his son, Yazid The hereditary accession of Yazd was opposed by a number of prominent Muslims, most notably Bad-Allah ibn al-Sugary, son of one of the companions of Muhammad, and Husain ibn Ali, grandson of Muhammad and younger son of Ali. The resulting conflict is known as the Second Fiona.

In 680 Ibn al-Sugary

In 680 Ibn al-Sugary fled Medina for Mecca. Hearing about Husain’s opposition to Yazd I, the people of Kura sent to Husain asking him to take over with their support. Al-Husain sent his cousin Muslim bin Agnail to verify if they would rally behind him. When the news reached Yazd I, he sent Boyd-Allah bin Zeya, ruler of Basra, with the instruction to prevent the people of Kura of rallying behind Al-Husain. Boyd-Allah bin Zeya managed to disperse the crowd who gathered around Muslim bin Agnail and captured Muslim bin Agnail. Realizing Boyd-Allah bin Zeya was instructed to prevent Husain from establishing support in Kura; Muslim bin Agnail requested a message to be sent to Husain to prevent his immigration to Kura. The request was denied and Boyd-Allah bin Zeya killed Muslim bin Agnail. While In al-Sugary would stay in Mecca until his death, Husain decided to travel on to Kura with his family unbeknownst to the lack of support in Kura. Husain and his family were intercepted by Yazd I forces led by Amur bin Sad, Shamir bin This Al-Johan, and Husain bin Tami who fought Al-Husain and his male family members until they were killed. There were 200 people in Husain’s caravan, many of whom were women including his sisters, wives and daughters and children. The women and children from Husain’s camp were taken as prisoners of war and led back to Damascus to be presented to Yazd I. They remained imprisoned until public opinion turned against him as word of Husain’s death and his family's capture spread. They were then granted passage back to Medina. The sole adult male survivor from the caravan was Ali inb Husain who was with fever to too ill to fight when the caravan was attacked. Following the death of Husain, In al-Sugary, although remaining in Mecca, was associated with two opposition movements, one centered in Medina and the other around Kharijites in Basra and Arabia. Because Medina had been home to Muhammad and his family, including Husain, word of his death and the imprisonment of his family led to a large opposition movement. In 683, Yazd dispatched an army to subdue both movements. The army suppressed the Medinas opposition at the Battle of al-Harrah the Grand Mosque in Medina was severely damaged and widespread pillaging caused deep-seated dissent. Yazd’s army continued on and laid siege to Mecca. At some point during the siege, the Kaibab was badly damaged in a fire. The destruction of the Kaibab and Grand Mosque became a major cause for censure of the Umayyad’s in later histories of the period.Yazid died while the siege was still in progress, and the Umayyad army returned to Damascus, leaving Ibn al-Zubayr in control of Mecca. Yazid's son Muawiya 683 84initially succeeded him but seems to have never been recognized as caliph outside of Syria. Two factions developed within Syria: the Confederation of Qays, who supported Ibn al-Sugary, and the Quad’s, who supported Marwan, a descendant of Umayyad via Wail Ibn Umayyah. The partisans of Marwan triumphed at a battle at Mar Rahit, near Damascus, in 684 and Marwan became caliph shortly thereafter.

Marwan was succeeded by his son, Abd al-Malik 685,705 who reconsolidated Umayyad control of the caliphate. The early reign of Abd al Malik was marked by the revolt of Al-Mukhtar, which was based in Kura. Al Mukhtar hoped to elevate Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, another son of Ali to the caliphate, although Ibn al-Hanafiyyah himself may have had no connection to the revolt. The troops of al-Mukhtar engaged in battles both with the Umayyads, in 686 at the river Khazir near Mosul: an Umayyad defeat, and with Ibn al-Zubayr in 687 at which time the revolt of al Mehta was crushed. In 691 Umayyad troops conquered Iraq, and in 692 the same army captured Mecca. Ibn al-Zubayr was killed in the attack. The second major event of the early reign of Bad al-Malik was the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Although the chronology remains somewhat uncertain, the building seems to have been completed in 692 which means that it was under construction during the conflict with Ibn al-Zubayr. This had led some historians both medieval and modern, to suggest that the Dome of the Rock was built to rival the Kaibab, which was under the control of Ibn al Zubayr as a destination for pilgrimage.Abd al-Malik is credited with centralizing the administration of the Caliphate and with establishing Arabic as its official language. He also introduced a uniquely Muslim coinage, marked by its aniconic decoration, which supplanted the Byzantine and Sasanian coins that had previously been in use. Abd al-Malik also recommenced offensive warfare against Byzantium, defeating the Byzantines at Sebastopolis and recovering control over Armenia and Caucasian Iberia.Following Abd al-Malik's death, his son, Al-Walled 705,15became caliph. Al-Walled was also active as a builder, sponsoring the construction of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina and the Great Mosque of Damascus.A major figure during the reigns of both al-Walled and Abd al-Malik was the Umayyad governor of Iraq, Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef. Many Iraqis remained resistant to Umayyad rule, and al-Hajjaj imported Syrian troops to maintain order, whom he housed in a new garrison town, Wasit. These troops became crucial in the suppression of a revolt led by an Iraqi general, Ibn al-Ash'ath, in the early eighth century.Al-Walid was succeeded by his brother, Sulayman 715-17whose reign was dominated by a protracted siege of Constantinople. The failure of the siege marked the end of serious Arab ambitions against the Byzantine capital. However, the first two decades of the eighth century witnessed the continuing expansion of the Caliphate, which pushed into the Iberian Peninsula in the west, and into Transoxiana and northern India in the east.Sulayman was succeeded by his cousin, Umar ibn Abd al Aziz 717,20 whose position among the Umayyad caliphs is somewhat unique. He is the only Umayyad ruler to have been recognized by subsequent Islamic tradition as a genuine caliph and not merely as a worldly king . Umar is honored for his attempt to resolve the fiscal problems attendant upon conversion to Islam. During the Umayyad period, the majority of people living within the caliphate were not Muslim, but Christian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, or otherwise. These religious communities were not forced to convert to Islam, but were subject to a tax which was not imposed upon Muslims. This situation may actually have made widespread conversion to Islam undesirable from the point of view of state revenue, and there are reports that provincial governors actively discouraged such conversions. It is not clear how Umar attempted to resolve this situation, but the sources portray him as having insisted on like treatment of Arab and non-Arab Muslims and on the removal of obstacles to the conversion of non-Arabs to Islam.

After the death of Umar, another son of Abd al-Malik, Yazid 720-24 became caliph. Yazid is best known for his iconoclastic edict which ordered the destruction of Christian images within the territory of the Caliphate. In 720, another major revolt arose in Iraq, this time led by Yazid ibn al-Muhallab. The final son of Abd al-Malik to become caliph was Hisham 724-43 whose long and eventful reign was above all marked by the curtailment of military expansion. Hisham established his court at Resafa in northern Syria, which was closer to the Byzantine border than Damascus, and resumed hostilities against the Byzantines, which had lapsed following the failure of the last siege of Constantinople. The new campaigns resulted in a number of successful raids into Hisham's reign furthermore witnessed the end of expansion in the west, following the defeat of the Arab army by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in 732. In 739 a major Berber Revolt broke out in North Africa, which was subdued only with difficulty. In the Caucasus, the confrontation with the Khazars peaked under Hisham: the Arabs established Derbent as a major military base and launched several invasions of the northern Caucasus, but failed to subdue the nomadic Khazars. The conflict was arduous and bloody, and the Arab army even suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Marj Ardabil in 730. Marwan ibn Muhammad, the future Marwan finally ended the war in 737 with a massive invasion that is reported to have reached as far as the Volga, but the Khazars remained unsubdued. Hisham suffered still worse defeats in the east, where his armies attempted to subdue both Tokharistan with its center at Balkh and Transoxiana with its center at Samarkand. Both areas had already been partially conquered but remained difficult to govern.

Once againa particular difficulty concerned the question of the conversion of non-Arabs especially the Sogdians of Transoxiana. Following the Umayyad defeat in the Day of Thirst in 724 Ashras ibn 'Abd Allah al Sulami governor of Khurasan, promised tax relief to those Sogdians who converted to Islam, but went back on his offer when it proved too popular and threatened to reduce tax revenues. Discontent among the Khurasani Arabs rose sharply after the losses suffered in the Battle of the Defile in 731 and in 734 al-Harith ibn Surayj led a revolt that received broad backing from Arabs and natives alike, capturing Balkh but failing to take Merv. After this defeat al-Harith's movement seems to have been dissolved, but the problem of the rights of non-Arab Muslims would continue to plague the Umayyads.Fresco from the palace of Qusayr Amra, possibly built by Al-Walled depicting a concubine. Umayyad harems maintained concubines trained in vocal arts and dance. Hisham was succeeded by Al-Walled 743-44 the son of Yazid Al Walled is reported to have been more interested in earthly pleasures than in religion, a reputation that may be confirmed by the decoration of the so-called desert palaces including Qusayr Amra and Khirbat al- that have been attributed to him. He quickly attracted the enmity of many, both by executing a number of those who had opposed his accession, and by persecuting the Qadariyya.

In 744 Yazid

Marwan immediately moved the capital north to Harran in present-day Turkey. A rebellion soon broke out in Syria perhaps due to resentment over the relocation of the capital and in 746 Marwan razed the walls of Homs and Damascus in retaliation. Marwan also faced significant opposition from Kharijites in Iraq and Iran who put forth first Dahhak ibn Qays and then Abu Dulaf as rival caliphs. In 747 Marwan managed to reestablish control of Iraq but by this time a more serious threat had arisen in Khorasan. The Hashimiyya movement a sub-sect of the Kaysanites Shia led by the Abbasid family, overthrew the Umayyad caliphate. The Abbasids were members of the Hashim clan rivals of the Umayyads but the word Hashimiyya seems to refer specifically to Abu Hashim a grandson of Ali and son of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya. According to certain traditions, Abu Hashim died in 717 in Humeima in the house of Muhammad ibn Ali, the head of the Abbasid family and before dying named Muhammad ibn Ali as his successor. This tradition allowed the Abbasids to rally the supporters of the failed revolt of Mukhtar, who had represented themselves as the supporters of Muhammad ibn al Hanafiyya. Beginning around 719 Hashimiyya missions began to seek adherents in Khurasan. Their campaign was framed as one of proselytism dawah.
They sought support for a member of the family of Muhammad, without making explicit mention of the Abbasids. These missions met with success both among Arabs and non Arabs masala although the latter may have played a particularly important role in the growth of the movement. Around 746 Abu Muslim assumed leadership of the Hashimiyya in Kherson. In 747he successfully initiated an open revolt against Umayyad rule which was carried out under the sign of the black flag. He soon established control of Kherson, expelling its Umayyad governorNasr ibn Sawyer and dispatched an army westwards. Kura fell to the Hashimiyya in 749, the last Umayyad stronghold in Iraq, Waist, was placed under siege and in November of the same year Abu al-Abbas was recognized as the new caliph in the mosque at Kura At this point Marwan mobilized his troops from Harran and advanced toward Iraq. In January 750 the two forces met in the Battle of the Sab, and the Umayyad’s were defeated. Damascus fell to the Abbasids in April, and in August Marwan was killed in Egypt. The victors desecrated the tombs of the Umayyad’s in Syria, sparing only that of Umar II, and most of the remaining members of the Umayyad family were tracked down and killed. When Abbasids declared amnesty for members of the Umayyad family, eighty gathered to receive pardons and all were massacred. One grandson of His ham, Bad ar-Rahman I survived and established a kingdom in Al Andalusia Moorish Iberia proclaiming his family to be the Umayyad Caliphate revived.
Private-Orton argues that the reasons for the decline of the Umayyad’s were the rapid expansion of Islam. During Umayyad period, mass conversions brought PersiansBerbers, Copts and Aramaic’s to Islam. These masalas clients were often better educated and more civilized than their Arab masters. The new converts, on the basis of equality of all Muslims, transformed the political landscape. Private-Orton also argues that the feud between Syria and Iraq further weakened the empire. One of Muawiya's first tasks was to create a stable administration for the empire. He followed the main ideas of the Byzantine Empire which had ruled the same region previously, and had three main governmental branches: political and military affairs; tax collection and religious administration. Each of these was further subdivided into more branches offices, and departments. Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the khalifah. The governor was in charge of the religious officials, army leaders, police, and civil administrators in his province. Local expenses were paid for by taxes coming from that province, with the remainder each year being sent to the central government in Damascus. As the central power of the Umayyad rulers waned in the later years of the dynasty, some governors neglected to send the extra tax revenue to Damascus and created great personal fortunes. As the empire grew, the number of qualified Arab workers was too small to keep up with the rapid expansion of the empire. Therefore, Muawiya allowed many of the local government workers in conquered provinces to keep their jobs under the new Umayyad government. Thus, much of the local government's work was recorded in Greek, Coptic, and Persian. It was only during the reign of Abd al-Malik that government work began to be regularly recorded in Arabic.

Islamic objects dated 743

A coin weight from the Umayyad Dynasty dated 743, made of glass. One Of the oldest Islamic objects in an American museum, the Walters Art Museum. Golden coin of the Umayyad Caliphate, Iran. The Byzantine and Sassanid Empires relied on money economies before the Muslim conquest, and that system remained in effect during the Umayyad period. Pre-existing coins remained in use, but with phrases from the Quran stamped on them. In addition to this, the Umayyad government began to mint its own coins in Damascus which were similar to pre-existing coins. The first coins minted by a Muslim government in history. Gold coins were called dinars while silver coins were called dirhams. The Central Board of Revenue administered the entire finance of the empire, it also imposed and collected taxes and disbursed revenue. A regular Board of Correspondence was established under the Umayyad’s. It issued state missives and circulars to the Central and Provincial Officers. It co-ordinated the work of all Boards and dealt with all correspondence as the chief secretariat. In order to check forgery Divan al-Khatami Bureau of Registry a kind of state chancellery was instituted by Mu'awiyah. It used to make and preserve a copy of each official document before sealing and dispatching the original to its destination. Thus in the course of time a state archive developed in Damascus by the Umayyad’s under Bad al-Malik. This department survived till the middle of the Abbasid period. Mu'awiyah introduced postal service. Abd al-Malik extended it throughout his empire and Walled made full use of it. The Umayyad Caliph Bad al-Malik developed a regular postal service. Umar bin Abdul-Aziz developed it further by building caravanserais at stages along the Kherson highway. Relays of horses were used for the conveyance of dispatches between the caliph and his agents and officials posted in the provinces. The main highways were divided into stages of 12 miles 19 km each and each stage had horses, donkeys or camels ready to carry the post. Primarily the service met the needs of Government officials but travellers and their important dispatches were also benefitted by the system. For swift transport of troops also the postal carriages were used. They were able to carry fifty to a hundred men at a time. Under Governor Yusuf bin Umar, the postal department of Iraq cost 4,000,000 dirhams a year. In the early period of Islam justice was administered by Muhammad and the orthodox Caliphs in person. After the expansion of the Islamic State Umar al Faro had to separate judiciary from the general administration and appointed the first quid in Egypt as early as 23H/643AD. After 661AD a series of judges succeeded one after another in Egypt under the Umayyad Caliphs, His ham and Walled. The Divan of Umar assigning annuities to all Arabs and to the Muslim soldiers of other races underwent a change in the hands of the Umayyad s. The Umayyad’s meddled with the register and the recipients regarded pensions as the subsistence allowance even without being in active service. His ham reformed it and paid only to those who participated in battle. On the pattern of the Byzantine system the Umayyad’s reformed their army organization in general and divided it into five corps: the center, two wings vanguards and rearguards while on March or in a battle field following the same formation. Marwan 740-50 abandoned the old division and introduced Kudus cohort a small compact body. The Umayyad troops were divided into three division’s infantry cavalry and artillery. Arab troops were dressed and armed in Greek fashion. The Umayyad cavalry used plain and round saddles. The artillery used armada ballista manganic the mangoes and kabbalah or kibosh the battering ram. The heavy engines, siege machines and baggage were carried on camels behind the army.

Ivory circa 8th century discovered in the Abbasid homestead in Humeima Jordan. The style indicates an origin in northeastern Iran, the base of Hashimiyya military power. The Muslim Arabs were at the top of the society, and saw it as their duty to rule over the conquered areas. Despite the fact that Islam teaches the equality of all Muslims, the Arab Muslims held themselves in higher esteem than Muslim non-Arabs and generally did not mix with other Muslims. The inequality of Muslims in the empire led to social unrest. As Islam spread, more and more of the Muslim population was constituted of non-Arabs. This caused tension as the new converts were not given the same rights as Muslim Arabs. Also, as conversions increased, tax revenues off non-Muslims decreased to dangerous lows. These issues continued to grow until they helped cause the Abbasid Revolt in the 740s. Non-Muslim groups in the Umayyad Caliphate, which included Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and pagan Berbers, were called shimmies. They were given a legally protected status as second-class citizens as long as they accepted and acknowledged the political supremacy of the ruling Muslims. They were allowed to have their own courts, and were given freedom of their religion within the empire. Although they could not hold the highest public offices in the empire, they had many bureaucratic positions within the government. Christians and Jews still continued to produce great theological thinkers within their communities, but as time wore on, many of the intellectuals converted to Islam, leading to a lack of great thinkers in the non-Muslim communities.

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History of Pakistan and India

The history of India begins with evidence of human activity of Home sapiens, as long as 75,000 years ago, or with earlier hominids including Home erectus from about 500,000 years ago. The lands Valley Cavitation. Which spread and flourished in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent

from c.3300 to 1300 BCE in present-day Pakistan and northwest India was the first major civilization in South Asia? A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the Mature Harappa. Period from 2600 to 1900 BCE. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed before the end of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilization which extended over much of the indo Gang etic plain and which witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas . Bronze Age. Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maura Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or Golden Age of India. This Bronze Age civilization collapsed before the end of the second millennium BCE and was followed by the Iron Age Vedic Civilization which extended over much of the Indo-Gang etic plain and which witnessed the rise of major polities known as the Mahajanapadas. In one of these kingdoms, Magadha Mohair was born in the 6th or 5th century BCE and propagated their Shamanic philosophies. Most of the subcontinent was conquered by the Maura Empire during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. Various parts of India ruled by numerous Middle kingdoms for the next 1,500 years among which the Gupta Empire stands out. Southern India saw the rule of the Chalukyas Cholas Pal lavas and Pandas. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "Golden Age of India. During this period, aspects of Indian civilization, administration, culture, and religion Hinduism and Buddhism spread too much of Asia, while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Roman Empire from around 77 CE. Muslim rule started in some parts of north India in the 13th century when the Delhi Sultanate was established in 1206 CE. During the reign of Aladdin Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughluq the Delhi Sultanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early 14th century and raids were conducted into southern India. After the death of Muhammad bin Tughluq the Delhi Sultanate declined and its territories were confined to some parts of the Indo-Gang etic Plain. The 15th century saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu kingdoms like the Vijayanagara Empire in south India, the Guajarati Kingdom in eastern India and Rajput kingdoms in northwestern India. The northern Deccan was ruled by the Bahrain Sultanate and parts of the Indo Gang etic Plain was still ruled by the Delhi Sultanate. Mughal rule came from Central Asia to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent in the 16th century. Mughal rulers introduced Central Asian art and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals and various Rajput kingdoms, several independent Hindu states, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, the Maratha Empire, Eastern Ganga Empire and the Atom Kingdom, flourished contemporaneously in southern, western, eastern and northeastern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Maratha Empire to exercise control over large areas in the subcontinent. Beginning in the late 18th century and over the next century, large areas of India were annexed by the British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 after which the British provinces of India were directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline. During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the natives irrespective of caste, creed or religion, the leading party being Indian National Congress which was later joined by Muslim League as well. The subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947 after the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the princely states all acceded to one of the new states. James Mill 1773 1836 in his The History of British India 1817 distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu Muslim and British civilizations.

Indian philosophers

This periodization has been criticized, for the misconceptions it has given rise to. Another periodization is the division into "ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods Smart and Michaels seem to follow Mill's periodization while Flood and Muse follow the ancient classical, mediaeval and modern periods periodization. Different periods are designated as classical Hinduism. Smart calls the period between 1000 BCE and 100 CE pre-classical. It's the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000 CE and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-Buddhism in India For Michaels the period between 500 BCE and 200 BCE is a time of Ascetic reformism whereas the period between 200 BCE and 1100 CE is the time of "classical Hinduism since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions.Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800 BCE and 200 BCE which he calls the Classical Period. This was a time when traditional religious practices and beliefs were reassessed. The Brahmins and the rituals they performed no longer enjoyed the same prestige they had in the Vedic period. According to Muse some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and personal enlightenment and transformation which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time. Indian philosophers came to regard the human as an immortal soul encased in a perishable body and bound by action, or karma to a cycle of endless existences. According to Muse, reincarnation is a fundamental principle of virtually all religions formed in Indias.The period of the ascetic reforms saw the rise of Buddhism and Jainism while Sikhism originated during the time of Islamic rule Isolated remains of Homo erectus in Hath Nora in the Narmada Valley in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the Middle Pleistocene era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago. Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the subcontinent. Ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements and some of its major civilizations. The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the Paleolithic hominid site in the Sean River valley. Sonia sites are found in the Visalia region across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.

7500 BCE in Haryana India

The Mesolithic period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by the Neolithic period, when more extensive settlement of the subcontinent occurred after the end of the last Ice Age approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semi permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the Bhimbetka rock shelters in modern Madhya Pradesh, India. Early Neolithic culture in South Asia is represented by the Biryani findings 7500 BCE in Haryana India Merger findings 7000 BCE onwards in Baluchistan, Pakistan. Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the Gulf of Kham bat in India, radiocarbon dated to 7500 BCE. However, the one dredged piece of wood in question was found in an area of strong ocean currents. Neolithic agriculture cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000 BCE.in the lower Gang etic valley around 3000 BCE, and in later South India, spreading southwards and also northwards into Malawi around 1800 BCE. The first urban civilization of the region began with the Indus Valley Civilisation.The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilization. It was centered on the Indus River and its tributaries which extended into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley the Ganges Yamuna Doab Gujarat and southeastern Afghanistan. The civilization is primarily located in modern-day India Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan provinces and Pakistan Sindh Punjab and Baluchistan provinces Historically part of Ancient India, it is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley the Harappa’s developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft carnal products, seal carving and produced copper bronze lead and tin. The Mature Indus civilization flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilization on the subcontinent. The civilization included urban centers such as Dholavira Kalimantan Rupert Rakhigarhi and Lethal in modern-day India, and Harappa Ganeriwala and Moreno dare in modern-day Pakistan. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses. Since Vedic times, "people from many strata of society throughout the subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanism norms a process sometimes called Sanskritization. It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts. The Koru kingdom corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Grey Ware cultures and to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1000 BCE as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda, the first Indian text to mention iron, as same ayes, literally black metal. The Painted Grey Ware culture spanned much of northern India from about 1100 to 600 BCE. The Vedic Period also established republics such as Vishal, which existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The later part of this period corresponds with an increasing movement away from the previous tribal system towards the establishment of kingdoms, called after conquering Persia, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate incorporated parts of what is now Pakistan around 720.

The Muslim rulers

The Muslim rulers were keen to invade India a rich region with a flourishing international trade and the only known diamond mines in the world In 712 Arab Muslim general Muhammad bin Passim conquered most of the Indus region in modern day Pakistan for the Umayyad empire, incorporating it as the As Sindh province with its capital at Al Man surah 72 km 45 mi north of modern Hyderabad in Sindh, Pakistan. After several wars the Hindu Rajas defeated the Arabs at the Battle of Rajasthan, halting their expansion and containing them at Sindh in Pakistan Many short lived Islamic kingdoms sultanates under foreign rulers were established across the north western subcontinent over a period of a few centuries. Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal south India, particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian Peninsula. This marked the introduction of a third Abrahamic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity, often in puritanical form. Later, the Bahrain Sultanate and Deccan sultanates, founded by Turkic rulers flourished in the south. The Vijayanagara Empire rose to prominence by the end of the 13th century as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions. The empire dominated all of Southern India and fought off invasions from the five established Deccan Sultanates. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalong, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. It lasted until 1646 though its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates. As a result, much of the territory of the former Vijay agar Empire were captured by Deccan Sultanates and the remainder was divided into many states ruled by Hindu rulers the 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings. The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire while the Chili dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting/

India-Muslim

Indo Muslim fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music literature religion and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu literally meaning horde or camp in various Turkic dialects was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskrit Procrit’s with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana 1236 1240.A Turbo-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timor (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nassir-u Din Mahmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timor entered Delhi and the city was sacked destroyed, and left in ruins, after Timor’s army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the other Muslims; 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day. The Empire was established in 1336 by Marinara I and his brother Bakke Raya I of Sangamon Dynasty. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hamper, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India. The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hamper. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Machala of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.

India Razia Sultana 1236-1240

The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada Telugu Tamil and Sanskrit while Carnatic music evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan including Kalong, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya.The 12th and 13th centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Rajput holdings. The subsequent Slave dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India, approximately equal in extent to the ancient Gupta Empire, while the Chili dynasty conquered most of central India but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu literally meaning "horde" or camp in various Turkic dialects was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskrit Procrit’s with immigrants speaking Persian, Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India Razia Sultana 1236-1240. A Turbo-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia Timor Tamerlane. Attacked the reigning Sultan Nassir-u Din Mahmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi. The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timor entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timor’s army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be Sacked except for the sayyids, scholars and the other Muslims; 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day. The Empire was established in 1336 by Marinara I and his brother Bakke Raya I of Sangamon Dynasty. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century.

Indian mathematics

The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hamper, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka India. The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hamper. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Machala of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit while Carnatic music evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalong, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya. The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule two-thirds of the subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely states that accounted for the remaining one-third of the area. There were 674 of the states in 1900 with a population of 73 million, or one person in five. In general, the princely states were strong supporters of the British regime, and the Raj left them alone. They were finally closed down in 1947-48. The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councilors to advise the British viceroy in 1861 the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councilors’ participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British, and many of the troops from small minority groups such as Purchas from Nepal and Sikhs. The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels with the British holding the more senior positions. From 1920 leaders such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. Some others adopted a militant approach that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle; revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian sub-continent. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-cooperation, civil disobedience and economic resistance. These movements succeeded in bringing independence to the new dominions of India and Pakistan in 1947(Pakistan and India).

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Umar bin al-Khattab

Umar ibn Al Katas Umar Son of Al Kata born 579 CE died 6 November 644 CE was one of the most powerful and influential Muslim caliph’s rulers in history. He was a sahib companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr 632,634 as the second Caliph of Rash dun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert Islamic jurist and is best known for his pious and just nature which earned him the title Al Faro the one who distinguishes between rights and wrong He is sometimes referred to as Caliph Umar I by historians of Islam, since a later Umayyad caliph Umar also bore that name. Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empir

e and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. His attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire resulted in the conquest of the Persian Empire in less than two years. It was Umar according to Jewish tradition, which set aside the Christian ban on Jews and allowed Jews into Jerusalem and to worship. Umar was born in Mecca to the Bane Aid clan, which was responsible for arbitrations among the tribes. His father was Kata in Nufayl and his mother was Han tama bent His ham from the tribe of Bane Makhzum. He is said to have belonged to a middle-class family. In his youth he used to tend to his father’s camels in the plains near Mecca. His father was famed for his intelligence among his tribe. He was a middle class merchant and is believed to be a ruthless man and emotional polytheist who often treated Umar badly. As obvious from Umar’s own statement regarding his father during his later political rule Umar said my father Al-Kata was a ruthless man. He used to make me work hard if I didn't work he used to beat me and he used to work me to exhaustion. Despite literacy being uncommon in pre-Islamic Arabia, Umar learned to read and write in his youth. Though not a poet himself he developed a love for poetry and literature According to the tradition of Quash while still in his teenage years Umar learned martial arts horse riding and wrestling. He was tall physically powerful and was soon to become a renowned wrestler.

Rome and Persia

Umar was also a gifted orator, and due to his intelligence and overwhelming personality he succeeded his father as an arbitrator of conflicts among the tribes. In addition Umar followed the traditional profession of Quash. He became a merchant and made several journeys to Rome and Persia where he is said to have met the various scholars and analyzed the Roman and Persian societies closely. However as a merchant he is believed to have never been successful. Drinking alcohol was very common among the Quash, and Umar was also fond of drinking in his pre Islamic days. In 610 Muhammad started delivering the message of Islam. Umar alongside others in Mecca opposed Islam and threatened to kill Muhammad. He resolved to defend the traditional, polytheistic religion of Arabia. He was most adamant and cruel in opposing Muhammad and very prominent in persecuting the Muslims. Umar was the first man who resolved that Muhammad had to be murdered in order to finish Islam. Umar firmly believed in the unity of the Quash and saw the new faith of Islam as a cause of division and discord among the Quraish.Due to the persecution at the hands of the Quash Muhammad ordered his followers to migrate to Abyssinia. As a small group of Muslims migrated Umar felt worried about the future unity of the Quash and decided to have Muhammad assassinated. Umar converted to Islam in 616 one year after the Migration to Abyssinia. The story was recounted in Ibn Ishaq, s Sīrah. On his way to murder Muhammad, Umar met his best friend Noam who had secretly converted to Islam but had not told Umar anything about it. When Umar informed him that he had set out to kill Muhammad Noam feared the worst. Umar was a man of his word and would attempt to do what he said. So in order to divert his attention Noam told him to inquire about his own house where his sister and her husband had converted to Islam. Upon arriving at her house Umar found his sister and brother in law Saied bin Said Umar’s cousin reciting the verses of the Quran from sure Ta ha. He started quarreling with his brother in law. When his sister came to rescue her husband, he also started quarreling with her. Yet still they kept on saying you may kill us but we will not give up Islam. Upon hearing these words Umar slapped his sister so hard that she fell to the ground bleeding from her mouth. When he saw what he did to his sister he calmed down out of guilt and asked his sister to give him what she was reciting. His sister replied in the negative and said you are unclean, and no unclean person can touch the Scripture. He insisted, but his sister was not prepared to allow him to touch the pages unless he washed his body. Omar at last gave in. He washed his body and then began to read the verses that were: Verily I am Allah there is no God but me so serve me only and establish regular prayer for my remembrance Quran 20.14.

Hajj of Muhammad in 631

He wept and declared surely this is the word of Allah. I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. On hearing this Hardhat Kaibab came out from inside and said O Omar Glad tidings for you. Yesterday Muhammad prayed to Allah O Allah strengthen Islam with either Omar or Abu Jail whomsoever Thou Likes. It seems that his prayer has been answered in your favor. He then went to Muhammad with the same sword he intended to kill him with and accepted Islam in front of him and his companions. Umar was 27 when he accepted Islam. Following his conversion Umar went to inform the chief of Quash Arm ibn His ham about his acceptance of Islam. According to one account Umar thereafter openly prayed at the Kaibab as the Quash chiefs, Arm ibn His ham and Abu Suflas ibn Herb reportedly watched in anger. This further helped the Muslims to gain confidence in practicing Islam openly. At this stage Umar even challenged anyone who dared to stop the Muslims from praying although no one dared to interfere with Umar when he was openly praying. Umar s conversion to Islam granted power to the Muslims and to the Islamic faith in Mecca. It was after this event that Muslims offered prayers openly in Masjid al Haram for the first time. Abdullah bin Mansour said. Umar s embracing Islam was our victory his migration to Medina was our success, and his reign a blessing from Allah. We didn't offer prayers in Al Haram Mosque until Umar had accepted Islam. When he accepted Islam the Quays were compelled to let us pray in the Mosque. Medina became the new center of Islam and the religion spread rapidly across Arabia. When Muhammad arrived in Medina, he paired off each immigrant Mohair with one of the residents of the city Ansari joining Muhammad ibn Maslamah with Umar making them brothers in faith. Later in Umar's reign as Caliph Muhammad ibn Muscleman would be assigned the office of Chief Inspector of Accountability. Muslims remained in peace in Medina for approximately a year before the Quash raised an army to attack them. In 624 Umar participated in the first Battle between Muslims and Quash of Mecca i.e. Battle of Bard. In 625 he took part in the Battle of Ehud. In the second phase of the Battle when Khalid ibn Wald’s Cavalry attacked Muslims at the rear changing the victory of Muslims to defeat, rumors of Muhammad’s death were spread and many Muslim warriors were routed from the battle field, Umar too was initially routed but hearing that Muhammad was still alive he went to Muhammad at the mountain of Ehud and prepared for the defenses of the hill to keep the army of Quash from approaching the hilltop. Later in the year Umar was a part of campaign against the Jewish tribe of Bane Nadir.

In 625 Umar s daughters Hash was married to Muhammad. Later in 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Battle of Bane Quays. In 628 Umar participated in the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witnesses over the pact. In 628 he was a part of Muslims' campaign to Khyber. In 629 Muhammad sent Arm ibn al A as to Zagat ul Sallisaw from where he called for reinforcement and Muhammad sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jar rah with reinforcement, serving under him were Abu Bark and Umar, they attacked and defeated the enemy. In 630 when Muslim armies rushed for the Conquest of Mecca he was part of that army. Later in 630 he was part of Battle of Hunan and Siege of Tiff. He was part of Muslims army that went for the campaign of Taboo under Muhammad’s command and he was reported to have given half of his wealth for the preparation of this expedition. He also participated in the farewell Hajj of Muhammad in 631. Muhammad died on 8 June 632. Umar, the devoted disciple, could not accept the reality that the "Messenger of God" was dead It is said that Umar promised to strike the head of any man who would say that Muhammad died. At this point Abu Bark is reported to have come out to the Muslim community and gave his famous speech which Whoever worshipped Muhammad let them know that Muhammad has died, and whoever worshipped Allah let them know that Allah is alive and never dies. Abu-Bakr then recited these verses from the Qur'an. Muhammad is but a messenger messengers the like of who have passed away before him. If then he dies or is killed will you turn back on your heel. Hearing this from Abu Bark the most senior disciple of Muhammad Umar then fell down on his knees in a great sense of sorrow and acceptance of the reality. Sunni Muslims say that this denial of Muhammad’s death was occasioned by his deep love for him. Umar’s political genius first manifested as the architect of the caliphate after Muhammad died in 8 June 632While the funeral of Muhammad was being arranged a group of Muhammad's followers who were natives of Medina, the Ansari helpers, organized a meeting on the outskirts of the city, effectively locking out those companions known as Mohairs The Emigrants including Umar.

Muhajirun

Umar found out about this meeting at Saqifah Bane Sarah, and taking with him two other Mohair’s Abu Bark and Abu Obadiah ibn al Jar rah, proceeded to the meeting, presumably to head off the Ansari’s plans for political separatism. Arriving at the meeting Umar was faced with a unified community of tribes from the Ansari who refused to accept the leadership of the Mohair’s. However Umar was undeterred in his belief the caliphate should be under the control of the Mohair’s. Though the Karaj were in disagreement, Umar after strained negotiations lasting up to one or two days, brilliantly divided the Ansari into their old warring factions of Awes and Karaj tribes. Umar resolved the divisions by placing his hand on that of Abu Bark as a unity candidate for those gathered in the Saqifah. Others gathered at the Saqifah meeting followed suit with the exception of the Karaj tribe and their leader sad ibn 'Ubada, whose tribe was ostracized. The Karaj tribe is said to have posed no significant threat as there were sufficient men of war from the Median tribes such as the Bane Awes to immediately organize them into a military bodyguard for Abu Bakr.The creation of the Islamic caliphate would be one of Umar's most enduring legacies, and its significance to world history is hard to overestimate. However Umar himself was characteristically guarded about his own creation. Umar judged the outcome of the Saqifa assembly to be a falter Made lung as 'a precipitate and considered deal because of the absence of most of the prominent Muhajirun including the Prophets own family and clan, whose participation he considered vital for any legitimate consultation shore meshwork. It was, he warned the community to be no precedent for the future. Yet he also defended the outcome, claiming that the Muslims were longing for Abu Bark as for no one else. He apologized; moreover, that the Muhajirun present were forced to press for an immediate oath of allegiance since the Ansari could not have been trusted to wait for a legitimate consultation and might have proceeded to elect one of their own after the departure of the Means. Another reason for Umar to censure the Saia meeting as a falter was no doubt its turbulent and undignified end, as he and his followers jumped upon the sick Kharrazi leader Sad bin Bade in order to teach him a lesson, if not to kill him for daring to challenge the sole right of Quays to rule. This violent break up of the meeting indicates, moreover, that the Ansari cannot all have been swayed by the wisdom and eloquence of Abu Bark’s speech and have accepted him as the best choice for the succession as suggested by Catani. There would have been no sense in beating up the Kharrazi chief if everybody had come around to swearing allegiance to Umar’s candidate. A substantial number of the Ansari, presumably of Karaj in particular must have refused to follow the lead of the Muhajirun.According to various Twelve Shia sources and Wilfred Made lung from The Institute for Ismailia Studies, founded by Kari Aga Khan, Umar and Abu Bark had in effect mounted a political coup against Ali at the Saqifah According to one version of narrations in primary sources, Umar and Abu Bark are also said to have used force to try to secure the allegiance from Ali and his party. It has been reported in mainly Persian historical sources written 300 years later, such as history of al-Tabard that after Ali's refusal to pay homage, Abu Bark sent Umar with an armed contingent to Fatimah’s house where Ali and his supporters are said to have gathered. Umar is reported to have warned those in the House that unless Ali succumbed to Abu Bark, he would set the House on fire and under these circumstances Ali was forced to capitulate. This version of events, fully accepted by Shia scholars, is generally rejected by Sunni scholars who, in view of other reports in their literature, believe that Ali gave oath of alliance to Abu Bark without any grievance. But then other Sunni and Shia sources say that Ali did not seared allegiance to Abu Bark after his election but six months later after the death of his wife Fatimah putting into question al-Tabard account. Either way the Sunni or the Shia accounts both accept that Ali felt that Abu Bark should have informed him before going into the meeting with the Ansari and that that Ali did swear allegiance to Abu Bark. Western scholars tend to agree that Ali believed he had a clear mandate to politically succeed Muhammad citation needed but offer differing views as to the extent of use of force by Umar in an attempt to intimidate Ali and his supporters for instance Dr. Wilfred Made lung from The Institute for Ismailia Studies in his book The Succession to Muhammad, discounts the possibility of use of force and argues that. Isolated reports of use of force against Ali and Bane Has him who unanimously refuses to swear allegiance for six months are probably to be discounted. Abu Bark no doubt was wise enough to restrain Umar from any violence against them well realizing that this would inevitably provoked the sense of solidarity of majority of Abdul Manna who’s acquiescence he needed. His policy was rather not isolating Bane Has him as far as possible. In the bestselling book, in the shadow of the sword, The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World, Tom Holland writes Omar’s historicity is beyond dispute. An Armenian bishop writing a decade or so after Qadisiyya describes Umar as Mighty potentate coordinating the advance of the sons of Ismael from the depths of the desert. Tom Holland writes what added incomparably to his prestige, was that his earth-shaking qualities as a generalissimo were combined with the most distinctive cast of virtues. Rather than ape the manner of a Caesar, as the Ghassanid kings had done he drew on the example of a quite different kind of Christian. Umar’s threadbare robes his diet of bread, salt and water and his rejection of worldly riches would have reminded anyone from the desert reaches beyond Palestine of a very particular kind of person. Monks out in the Judean desert had long been casting themselves as warriors of God. The achievement of Umar was to take such language to a literal and previously unimaginable extreme. In 644, at zenith of his power, Umar was assassinated. His assassination was carried out by Persians, in response to the Muslim conquest of Persia. The assassination was planned several months earlier. In October 644 Umar went for Hajj in Mecca, the assassins started the hoopla of Umar's possible death that year, and the massive crowd of the congregation was used by the conspirators as a veil to hide themselves. It is related that when Umar stood at Mount Arafat he heard a voice saying Caliph never again will you stand on the Mount of Arafat. A companion of Umar Jucar bin Mute is reported to have said. We saw a man standing at the top of the hill and crying, verily that is the last Hajj of Umar. He will never come here again. During one of rituals of Hajj the Rami alJamarat stoning of the Devil someone threw a stone on Umar that wounded his head, a voice was heard that Umar will not attend the Hajj ever again.

On 3 November 644 Porous attacked Umar

Porous brought a complaint to Umar about the high tax charged from him by his master Mughirah. Umar wrote to Mughirah and inquired about the tax Mughirah, s reply was satisfactory, but Umar held that the tax charged from Abu Lulu was reasonable, owning the to his daily income. Umar then is reported to have asked Abu Lulu. I heard that you make windmills make one for me as well. In a sullen mood, Faros said Verily I will make such a mill for you, that whole world would remember it .Hermana, the alleged mastermind of the plot. He was Persian Commander in Chief and was captured and brought to Umar at Medina where to save his life he apparently converted to Islam. One of Umar’s advisors Ki abs al Akbar a former Jewish Rabbi Who had converted to Islam.Jafinah the Christian Arab from Iraq, who was also a foster brother of Sad in Abi Waqqas, former governors of Bursa? Porous Nahavandi popularly known as Abu Lu, Lu ah, he was slave of Muglia ibn Shi’a the governor of Bursa at the time. It was Porous Nahavandi who was assigned the mission of assassinating Umar. According to the plan, before the Far prayers the morning prayers before the dawn Porous would enter AL Masjid al Malawi, the main mosque of Medina where Umar led the prayers and would attack Umar during the prayers, and then flee or mix with the congregation at mosque. There were Persian children slaves in Medina. Seeing them, Porous is quoted saying: You have been enslaved at such a tender age. This Umar sees eaten my heart. I will take his heart out. On 3 November 644 Porous attacked Umar while he was leading the morning prayers, stabbing him six times in the belly and last on the navel that proved fatal. Umar was left profusely bleeding while Abu Lulu tried to flee but people from all sides rushed to capture him in his efforts to escape he is reported to have wounded twelve other people, six or nine of whom later died. At last he was captured but committed suicide using the same dagger. Umar died of the wounds three days later on Sunday 7 November 644 26th Hu al Hijab 23 Umar is reported to have left the following testament: Be kind and generous to the Muhajirun and the Ansari. Those out of them, who are good, be good to them; those who are bad overlook their lapses. Be good to the people of the conquered lands. They are the outer line of our defense; they are the target of the anger and distress of our enemies. They contribute to our revenues. They should be taxed only on their surplus wealth. Be gracious to the Bedouins as they are the backbone of the Arab nation. I instruct you to be good to the Shimmies for they are your responsibility. Do not tax them beyond their capacity. Ensure that they pay the Jazzy without undue inconvenience. Fear God, and in all that you do keep His pleasure in view. In the matter of people fear God, and in the matter of Allah do not be afraid of the people. With regard to the people, I enjoin upon you to administer justice with an even hand. See that all the legitimate requirements of the people are met. Be concerned for their welfare. Ensure the safety of their person and property. See that the frontiers of our domains are not violated. Take strong steps to guard the frontiers. In the matter of administration do not prefer the rich to the poor. Be hard against those who violate the law. Show them no mercy. Do not rest content until you have brought the miscreants to book. Treat all the people as equal. Be a pillar of strength for those who are weak and oppressed. Those who are strong but do wrong, make them pay for their wrong-doings. In the distribution of booty and other matters be above nepotism. Let no consideration of relationship or selfish interest weigh with you. The Satan is at large; it may tempt you. Rise above all temptations and perform your duties in accordance with the injunctions of Islam. Get guidance from the Holy Quran and Sunni. Freely consult the wise men around you. Apply your own mind in difficult cases, and seek light from God. Be simple in your living and your habits. Let there be no show or ostentation about you. Lead life as a model Muslim. As you are the leader of the Muslims justify your leadership by being the best among them all.

May God bless you

As per Umar's will he was buried next to Al-Masjid alNabawi alongside Muhammad and C Be kind and generous to the Muhajirun and the Ansari. Those out of them, who are good, be good to them; those who are bad overlook their lapses. Be good to the people of the conquered lands. They are the outer line of our defense; they are the target of the anger and distress of our enemies. They contribute to our revenues. They should be taxed only on their surplus wealth. Be gracious to the Bedouins as they are the backbone of the Arab nation. I instruct you to be good to the Dimmit for they are your responsibility. Do not tax them beyond their capacity. Ensure that they pay the Jazzy without undue inconvenience. Fear God, and in all that you do keep His pleasure in view. In the matter of people fear God, and in the matter of Allah do not be afraid of the people. With regard to the people, I enjoin upon you to administer justice with an even hand. See that all the legitimate requirements of the people are met. Be concerned for their welfare. Ensure the safety of their person and property. See that the frontiers of our domains are not violated. Take strong steps to guard the frontiers. In the matter of administration do not prefer the rich to the poor. Be hard against those who violate the law. Show them no mercy. Do not rest content until you have brought the miscreants to book. Treat all the people as equal. Be a pillar of strength for those who are weak and oppressed. Those who are strong but do wrong, make them pay for their wrong-doings. In the distribution of booty and other matters be above nepotism. Let no consideration of relationship or selfish interest weigh with you. The Satan is at large; it may tempt you. Rise above all temptations and perform your duties in accordance with the injunctions of Islam. Get guidance from the Holy Quran and Sunni. Freely consult the wise men around you. Apply your own mind in difficult cases, and seek light from God. Be simple in your living and your habits. Let there be no show or ostentation about you. Lead life as a model Muslim. As you are the leader of the Muslims, justify your leadership by being the best among them all. May God bless you? Be kind and generous to the Muhajirun and the Ansari. Those out of them, who are good, be good to them; those who are bad overlook their lapses. Be good to the people of the conquered lands. They are the outer line of our defense; they are the target of the anger and distress of our enemies. They contribute to our revenues. They should be taxed only on their surplus wealth. Be gracious to the Bedouins as they are the backbone of the Arab nation. I instruct you to be good to the Dimmit for they are your responsibility. Do not tax them beyond their capacity. Ensure that they pay the Jazzy without undue inconvenience. Fear God, and in all that you do keep His pleasure in view. In the matter of people fear God, and in the matter of Allah do not be afraid of the people. With regard to the people, I enjoin upon you to administer justice with an even hand. See that all the legitimate requirements of the people are met. Be concerned for their welfare. Ensure the safety of their person and property. See that the frontiers of our domains are not violated. Take strong steps to guard the frontiers. In the matter of administration do not prefer the rich to the poor. Be hard against those who violate the law. Show them no mercy. Do not rest content until you have brought the miscreants to book. Treat all the people as equal. Be a pillar of strength for those who are weak and oppressed. Those who are strong but do wrong, make them pay for their wrong-doings. In the distribution of booty and other matters be above nepotism. Let no consideration of relationship or selfish interest weigh with you. The Satan is at large; it may tempt you. Rise above all temptations and perform your duties in accordance with the injunctions of Islam. Get guidance from the Holy Quran and Sunni. Freely consult the wise men around you. Apply your own mind in difficult cases, and seek light from God. Be simple in your living and your habits. Let there be no show or ostentation about you. Lead life as a model Muslim. As you are the leader of the Muslims, justify your leadership by being the best among them all. May God bless you.

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Mahomed Ali Jinnah

Mahomed Ali Jinnah bay 25 December 1876 11 September 1948 was a lawyer politician, and the founder of Pakistan. Jinnah served as leader of the All-India Muslim League from 1913 until Pakistan's independence on 14 August 1947and as Pakistan's first Governor-General from independence until his death. He is revered in Pakistan as Quaid-I-AZ am Great Leader and Baba-I-Qualm Father of the Nation. His birthday is observed as a national holiday. Born in Karachi and trained as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn in London, Jinnah rose to prominence in the Indian National Congress in the first two decades of the 20th century. In these early years of his political career, Jinnah advocated Hindu–Muslim unity, helping to shape the 1916 Luck now Pact between the Congress and the All-India Muslim League, a party in which Jinnah had also become prominent. Jinnah became a key leader in the All India Home Rule League, and proposed a fourteen-point constitutional reform plan to safeguard the political rights of Muslims should a united British India become independent. In 1920, however, Jinnah resigned from the Congress when it agreed to follow a campaign of Satyagraha, or non-violent resistance, advocated by the influential leader, Mohandas Gandhi. By 1940, Jinnah had come to believe that Indian Muslims should have their own state. In that year, the Muslim League, led by Jinnah, passed the Lahore Resolution, demanding a separate nation. During the Second World War, the League gained strength while leaders of the Congress were imprisoned, and in the elections held shortly after the war, it won most of the seats reserved for Muslims. Ultimately, the Congress and the Muslim League could not reach a power-sharing formula for a united India, leading all parties to agree to separate independence for a predominately Hindu India, and for a Muslim-majority state, to be called Pakistan. As the first Governor-General of Pakistan, Jinnah worked to establish the new nation's government and policies and to aid the millions of Muslim migrants who had emigrated from the new nation of India to Pakistan after the partition, personally supervising the establishment of refugee camps. Jinnah died at age 71 in September 1948, just over a year after Pakistan gained independence from the British Raj. He left a deep and respected legacy in Pakistan, though he is less well thought of in India. According to his biographer, Stanley Wilbert, he remains Pakistan's greatest leader. Jinnah was born Mahomedali Jinnahbhai most likely in 1876 to Jinnahbhai Poona and his wife Mithibai in a rented apartment on the second floor of Wizard Mansion Karachi Jinnah's birthplace is in Sindh a region today part of Pakistan, but then within the Bombay Presidency of British India. His father was a prosperous Gujarati merchant who had been born to a family of weavers in the village of Paneli in the princely state of Gonadal; his mother was also of that village. They had moved to Karachi about 1875 having married before their departure. Karachi was then enjoying an economic boom: the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 meant it was 200 nautical miles closer to Europe for shipping than Bombay. Jinnah's family was of the Ismailia Kahoka branch of Shi'a Islam though Jinnah later followed the Twelve Shi'a teachings. Jinnah was the second child he had three brothers and three sisters, including his younger sister Fatima Jinnah. The parents were native Gujarati speakers, and the children also came to speak Kutch Sindhi and English Except for Fatima, little is known of his siblings, where they settled or if they met with their brother as he advanced in his legal or political careers As a boy, Jinnah lived for a time in Bombay with an aunt and may have attended the Goal Das Tajo Primary School there, or possibly a madrasa, later on moving to the Cathedral and John Conon School. In Karachi, he attended the Sindh-Madrasa-tul-Islam and the Christian Missionary Society High School. He gained his matriculation from Bombay University at the high school. In his later years and especially after his death, a large number of stories about the boyhood of Pakistan's founder were circulated: that he spent all his spare time at the police court, listening to the proceedings and that he studied his books by the glow of street lights for lack of other illumination.

In 1893 the Jinnahbhai family

His official biographer, Hector Bolitho, writing in 1954 interviewed surviving boyhood associates, and obtained a tale that the young Jinnah discouraged other children from playing marbles in the dusturging them to rise up, keep their hands and clothes clean and play cricket instead. In 1892 Sir Frederick Leigh Croft a business associate of Jinnahbhai Poona offered young Jinnah a London apprenticeship with his firm, Graham's Shipping and Trading Company. He accepted the position despite the opposition of his mother, who before he left, had him enter an arranged marriage with a girl two years his junior from the ancestral village of Panel, Embay Jinnah. Jinnah's mother and first wife both died during his absence in England although the apprenticeship in London was considered a great opportunity for Jinnah, one reason for sending him overseas was a legal proceeding against his father, which placed the family's property at risk of being sequestered by the court. In 1893 the Jinnahbhai family moved to Bombay. Soon after his arrival in London, Jinnah gave up the apprenticeship in order to study law, enraging his father, who had, before his departure, given him enough money to live for three years. The aspiring barrister joined Lincoln's Inn, later stating that the reason he chose Lincoln's over the other Inns of Court was that over the main entrance to Lincoln's Inn were the names of the world's great lawgivers, including Muhammad. Jinnah's biographer Stanley Wilbert notes that there is no such inscription, but instead inside is a mural showing Muhammad and other lawgivers, and speculates that Jinnah may have edited the story in his own mind to avoid mentioning a pictorial depiction which would be offensive to many Muslims. Jinnah's legal education at the Inns of Court followed the apprenticeship system, which had been in force there for centuries. To gain knowledge of the law he followed an established barrister and learned from what he did, as well as from studying law books. During this period, he shortened his name to Muhammad Ali Jinnah. During his student years in England, Jinnah was influenced by 19th-century British liberalism, like many other future Indian independence leaders. This political education included exposure to the idea of the democratic nation, and progressive politics. He became an admirer of the Paris Indian political leaders Dadabhai Nairobi and Sir Pherozeshah Mehta. Nairobi had become the first Member of Parliament of Indian extraction shortly before Jinnah's arrival, triumphing with a majority of three votes in Finsbury Central. Jinnah listened to his maiden speech in the House of Commons from the visitor's gallery. The Western world not only inspired Jinnah in his political life, but also greatly influenced his personal preferences, particularly when it came to dress. Jinnah abandoned Indian garb for Western style clothing and throughout his life he was always impeccably dressed in public.

In 1895 at age 19

He came to own over 200 suits, which he wore with heavily starched shirts with detachable collars, and as a barrister took pride in never wearing the same silk tie twice. Even when he was dying, he insisted on being formally dressed I will not travel in my pajamas. In his later years he was usually seen wearing a Karakul hat which subsequently came to be known as the Jinnah cap Dissatisfied with the law, Jinnah briefly embarked on a stage career with a Shakespearean company, but resigned after receiving a stern letter from his father In 1895, at age 19 he became the youngest Indian to be called to the bar in England Although he returned to Karachi, he remained there only a short time before moving to Bombay. Aged twenty, Jinnah began his practice in Bombay, the only Muslim barrister in the city. English had become his principal language and would remain so throughout his life. His first three years in the law, from 1897 to 1900 brought him few briefs. His first step towards a brighter career occurred when the acting Advocate General of Bombay, John Moles worth MacPherson, invited Jinnah to work from his chambers in 1900, P. H. Distort, a Bombay presidency magistrate left the post temporarily and Jinnah succeeded in getting the interim position. After his six-month appointment period, Jinnah was offered a permanent position on a 1,500 rupee per month salary. Jinnah politely declined the offer, stating that he planned to earn 1,500 rupees a day—a huge sum at that time—which he eventually did Nevertheless, as a lawyer, Jinnah gained fame for his skilled handling of the 1907 Caucus Case. This controversy arose out of Bombay municipal elections, which Indians alleged were rigged by a caucus of Europeans to keep Sir Pherozeshah Mehta out of the council. Jinnah gained great esteem from leading the case for Sir Pherozeshah, himself a noted barrister. Although Jinnah did not win the Caucus Case, he posted a successful record, becoming well known for his advocacy and legal logic. In 1908, his factional foe in the Indian National Congress BAL Gangadhar Tikal was arrested for sedition. Before Tikal unsuccessfully represented himself at trial he engaged Jinnah in an attempt to secure his release on bail. Jinnah did not succeed, but obtained an acquittal for Tikal when he was charged with sedition again in 1916. One of Jinnah's fellow barristers from the Bombay High Court remembered that "Jinnah's faith in him was incredible he recalled that on being admonished by a judge with "Mr. Jinnah, remember that you are not addressing a third-class magistrate" Jinnah shot back My Lord, allow me to warn you that you are not addressing a third-class pleader Another of his fellow barristers described him On 20 February 1947, Attlee announced Mountbatten's appointment, and that Britain would transfer power in India not later than June 1948. Mountbatten took office as Viceroy on 24 March 1947 two days after his arrival in India. By then, the Congress had come around to the idea of partition. Nehru stated in 1960 the truth is that we were tired men and we were getting on in years

Bengal and Punjab

The plan for partition offered a way out and we took it. Leaders of the Congress decided that having loosely tied Muslim-majority provinces as part of a future India was not worth the loss of the powerful government at the center which they desired. However, the Congress insisted that if Pakistan were to become independent, Bengal and Punjab would have to be divided. Mountbatten had been warned in his briefing papers that Jinnah would be his toughest customer who had proved a chronic nuisance because no one in this country India had so far gotten into Jinnah's mind the men met over six days beginning on 5 April. The sessions began lightly when Jinnah, photographed between Louis and Edwina Mountbatten, quipped a rose between two thorns which the Viceroy took, perhaps gratuitously, as evidence that the Muslim leader had pre planned his joke, but had expected the vicereine to stand in the middle. Mountbatten was not favorably impressed with Jinnah, repeatedly expressing frustration to his staff about Jinnah's insistence on Pakistan in the face of all argument. Jinnah feared that at the end of the British presence in India, they would turn control over to the Congress-dominated constituent assembly, putting Muslims at a disadvantage in attempting to win autonomy. He demanded that Mountbatten divide the army prior to independence, which would take at least a year. Mountbatten had hoped that the post-independence arrangements would include a common defense force, but Jinnah saw it as essential that a sovereign state should have its own forces. Mountbatten met with Liquate the day of his final session with Jinnah, and concluded, as he told Attlee and the Cabinet in May, that it had become clear that the Muslim League would resort to arms if Pakistan in some form were not conceded. The Viceroy was also influenced by negative Muslim reaction to the constitutional report of the assembly, which envisioned broad powers for the post-independence central government. On 2 June, the final plan was given by the Viceroy to Indian leaders: on 15 August, the British would turn over power to two dominions. The provinces would vote on whether to continue in the existing constituent assembly, or to have a new one, that is, to join Pakistan. Bengal and Punjab would also vote, both on the question of which assembly to join, and on partition. A boundary commission would determine the final lines in the partitioned provinces. Plebiscites would take place in the North-West Frontier Province which did not have a League government despite an overwhelmingly Muslim population and in the majority-Muslim Sleet district of Assam, adjacent to eastern Bengal. On 3 June, Mountbatten, Nehru, Jinnah and Sikh leader Balder Singh made the formal announcement by radio Jinnah concluded his address with Pakistan indaba long live Pakistan which was not in the script. In the weeks which followed Punjab and Bengal cast the votes which resulted in partition. Sleet and the N.W.F.P. voted to cast their lots with Pakistan a decision joined by the assemblies in Sind and Baluchistan. On 4 July 1947 Liquate asked Mountbatten on Jinnah's behalf to recommend to the British king George VI that Jinnah be appointed Pakistans first governor-general.

State of Pakistan

This request angered Mountbatten, who had hoped to have that position in both dominions-he would be India's first post-independence governor-general—but Jinnah felt that Mountbatten would be likely to favor the new Hindu-majority state because of his closeness to Nehru. In addition, the governor-general would initially be a powerful figure, and Jinnah did not trust anyone else to take that office. Although the Boundary Commission, led by British lawyer Sir Cyril Radcliffe had not yet reported, there were already massive movements of populations between the nations-to-be, as well as sectarian violence. Jinnah arranged to sell his house in Bombay and procured a new one in Karachi. On 7 August, Jinnah, with his sister and close staff, flew from Delhi to Karachi in Mountbatten's plane, and as the plane taxied he was heard to murmur that’s the end of that. On 11 August, he presided over the new constituent assembly for Pakistan at Karachi, and addressed them, You are free you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan You may belong to any religion or caste or creed—that has nothing to do with the business of the State. On 14 August Pakistan became independent; Jinnah led the celebrations in Karachi. One observer wrote, Here indeed is Pakistan's King Emperor, Archbishop of Canterbury, Speaker and Prime Minister concentrated into one formidable Quaid e AZ am. The Radcliffe Commission, dividing Bengal and Punjab, completed its work and reported to Mountbatten on 12 August; the last Viceroy held the maps until the 17th, not wanting to spoil the independence celebrations in both nations. There had already been ethnically charged violence and movement of populations; publication of the Radcliffe Line dividing the new nations sparked mass migration, murder, and ethnic cleansing. Many on the wrong side of the lines fled or were murdered, or murdered others, hoping to make facts on the ground which would reverse the commission's verdict. Radcliffe wrote in his report that he knew that neither side would be happy with his award he declined his fee for the work. Christopher Beaumont, Radcliffe's private secretary, later wrote that Mountbatten "must take the blame—though not the sole blame-for the massacres in the Punjab in which between 500,000 to a million men, women and children perished As many as 14,500,000 people relocated between India and Pakistan during and after partition. Jinnah did what he could for the eight million people who migrated to Pakistan although by now over 70 and frail from lung ailments he travelled across West Pakistan and personally supervised the provision of aid According to Ahmed, What Pakistan needed desperately in those early months was a symbol of the state, one that would unify people and give them the courage and resolve to succeed. Along with Liquate and Abdu Rib Ishtar, Jinnah represented Pakistan's interests in the Division Council to appropriately divide public assets between India and Pakistan Pakistan was supposed to receive one-sixth of the pre-independence government's assets, carefully divided by agreement, even specifying how many sheets of paper each side would receive. The new Indian state, however, was slow to deliver, hoping for the collapse of the nascent Pakistani government, and reunion. Few members of the Indian Civil Service and the Indian Police Service had chosen Pakistan, resulting in staff shortages.

Made in Pakistan

Crop growers found their markets on the other side of an international border. There were shortages of machinery, not all of which was made in Pakistan. In addition to the massive refugee problem, the new government sought to save abandoned crops, establish security in a chaotic situation, and provide basic services. According to economist Yemen Niaz Mohiuddin in her study of Pakistan although Pakistan was born in bloodshed and turmoil it survived in the initial and difficult months after partition only because of the tremendous sacrifices made by its people and the selfless efforts of its great leader. And Indore to accede to Pakistan—these princely states did not border Pakistan, and each had a Hindu-majority population. The coastal princely state of Junagadh, which had a majority-Hindu population, did accede to Pakistan in September 1947 with its ruler's dean, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, personally delivering the accession papers to Jinnah. The Indian army occupied the principality in November, forcing its former leaders, including Bhutto, to flee to Pakistan, beginning the politically powerful Bhutto family. The most contentious of the disputes was, and continues to be, that over the princely state of Kashmir. It had a Muslim-majority population and a Hindu maharaja, Sir Hair Singh, who stalled his decision on which nation to join. With the population in revolt in October 1947, aided by Pakistani irregulars, the maharaja acceded to India; Indian troops were airlifted in. Jinnah objected to this action, and ordered that Pakistani troops move into Kashmir. The Pakistani Army was still commanded by British officers, and the commanding officer, General Sir Douglas Graney, refused the order, stating that he would not move into what he considered the territory of another nation without approval from higher authority, which was not forthcoming. Jinnah withdrew the order. This did not stop the violence there, which has broken into war between India and Pakistan from time to time since. Some historians allege that Jinnah's courting the rulers of Hindu-majority states and his gambit with Junagadh are evidence of ill-intent towards India, as Jinnah had promoted separation by religion, yet tried to gain the accession of Hindu-majority states. In his book Patel: A Life Raj Mohan Gandhi asserts that Jinnah hoped for a plebiscite in Junagadh, knowing Pakistan would lose, in the hope the principle would be established for Kashmir. Despite the United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 issued at India's request for a plebiscite in Kashmir after the withdrawal of Pakistani forces, this has never occurred. In January 1948 the Indian government finally agreed to pay Pakistan its share of British India's assets. They were impelled by Gandhi, who threatened a fast until death. Only days later, Gandhi was assassinated by Natural Gods, a Hindu nationalist, who believed that Gandhi was pro-Muslim? Jinnah made a brief statement of condolence, calling Gandhi one of the greatest men produced by the Hindu community In March, Jinnah, despite his declining health, made his only post-independence visit to East Pakistan. In a speech before a crowd estimated at 300,000, Jinnah stated in English that Urdu alone should be the national language, believing a single language was needed for a nation to remain united.

East Pakistan

The Bengali-speaking people of East Pakistan strongly opposed this policy, and in 1971 the official language issue was a factor in the region's secession to form Bangladesh. From the 1930s Jinnah suffered from tuberculosis only his sister and a few others close to him were aware of his condition. Jinnah believed public knowledge of his lung ailments would hurt him politically. In a 1938 letter, he wrote to a supporter that "you must have read in the papers how during my tours I suffered, which was not because there was anything wrong with me, but the irregularities of the schedule and over-strain told upon my health Many years later, Mountbatten stated that if he had known Jinnah was so ill, he would have stalled, hoping Jinnah's death would avert partition. Fatima Jinnah later wrote, "Even in his hour of triumph, the Quaid-e-As am was gravely ill He worked in a frenzy to consolidate Pakistan. And, of course he totally neglected his health Jinnah worked with a tin of Craven a cigarettes at his desk, of which he had smoked 50 or more a day for the previous 30 years, as well as a box of Cuban cigars. He took longer and longer rest breaks in the private wing of Government House in Karachi, where only he, Fatima and the servants were allowed. In June 1948, he and Fatima flew to Quetta, in the mountains of Baluchistan, where the weather was cooler than in Karachi. He could not completely rest there, addressing the officers at the Command and Staff College saying, "You, along with the other Forces of Pakistan are the custodians of the life property and honor of the people of Pakistan. He returned to Karachi for the 1 July opening ceremony for the State Bank of Pakistan, at which he spoke; a reception by the Canadian trade commissioner that evening in honor of Dominion Day was the last public event he ever attended. On 6 July 1948 Jinnah returned to Quetta, but at the advice of doctors soon journeyed to an even higher retreat at Zia rat. Jinnah had always been reluctant to undergo medical treatment, but realizing his condition, the Pakistani government sent the best doctors it could find to treat him. Tests confirmed tuberculosis, and showed evidence of lung cancer. Jinnah was informed, and asked for full information on his disease and for care in how his sister was told. He was treated with the new miracle drug of streptomycin, but it did not help. Jinnah's condition continued to deteriorate despite the Enid prayers of his people. He was moved to the lower altitude of Quetta on 13 August, the eve of Independence Day for which a statement ghost-written for him was released. Despite an increase in appetite he then weighed just over 36 kilograms 79 lb. it was clear to his doctors that if he was to return to Karachi in life he would have to do so very soon. Jinnah, however, was reluctant to go, not wishing his aides to see him as an invalid on a stretcher. By 9 September Jinnah had also developed pneumonia. Doctors urged him to return to Karachi, where he could receive better care, and with his agreement, he was flown there on 11 September. Dr. Ilia Box his personal physician believed that Jinnah's change of mind was caused by foreknowledge of death. The plane landed at Karachi to be met by Jinnah's limousine, and an ambulance into which Jinnah's stretcher was placed. The ambulance broke down on the road into town, and the Governor-General and those with him waited for another to arrive; he could not be placed in the car as he could not sit up. They waited by the roadside in oppressive heat as trucks and buses passed by, unsuitable for transporting the dying man and with their occupants not knowing of Jinnah's presence. After an hour, the replacement ambulance came, and transported Jinnah to Government House, arriving there over two hours after the landing. Jinnah died at pm at his home in Karachi on 11 September 1948 just over a year after Pakistan's creation. Indian Prime Minister Nehru stated upon Jinnah's death How shall we judge him

I have been very angry with him often during the past years. But now there is no bitterness in my thought of him, only a great sadness for all that has been he succeeded in his quest and gained his objective, but at what a cost and with what a difference from what he had imagined. Jinnah was buried on 12 September 1948 amid official mourning in both India and Pakistan a million people gathered for his funeral. Indian Governor-General Rajagopalachari cancelled an official reception that day, in honor of the late leader. Today, Jinnah rests in a large marble mausoleum Maar-e-Quaid in Karachi. Dina Wada, Jinnah's daughter, remained in India after independence before ultimately settling in New York City. In the 1965 presidential election, Fatima Jinnah, by then known as Madder-e-Millet Mother of the Nation became the presidential candidate of a coalition of political parties that opposed the rule of President Aruba Khan, but was not successful. The Jinnah House in Malabar Hill Bombay, is in the possession of the Government of India but the issue of its ownership has been disputed by the Government of Pakistan Jinnah had personally requested Prime Minister Nehru to preserve the house, hoping one day he could return to Mumbai. There are proposals for the house be offered to the government of Pakistan to establish a consulate in the city as a goodwill gesture, but Dina Wada has also asked for the property. After Jinnah died, his sister Fatima asked the court to execute Jinnah's will under Shia lslam La This subsequently became the part of argument in Pakistan about Jinnah's religious affiliation. Vail Nasr says Jinnah "was an Ismailia by birth and a Twelve Shia by confession though not a religiously observant mankind a 1970 legal challenge, Husain Ali Ganja Wallis claimed Jinnah had converted to Sunni Islam, but the High Court rejected this claim in 1976 effectively accepting the Jinnah family as Shia Publicly Jinnah had a non-sectarian stance and was at pains to gather the Muslims of India under the banner of a general Muslim faith and not under a divisive sectarian identity. In 1970 a Pakistani court decision stated that Jinnah's "secular Muslim faith made him neither Shia nor Sunni and in 1984 the court maintained that "the Quaid was definitely not a Shia Liquate H. Merchant elaborates that he was also not a Sunni, he was simply a Muslim. Jinnah's legacy is Pakistan. According to Mohiuddin, "He was and continues to be as highly honored in Pakistan as first US president George Washington is in the United States Pakistan owes its very existence to his drive tenacity, and judgment Jinnah’s importance in the creation of Pakistan was monumental and immeasurable.Wolpert, giving a speech in honor of Jinnah in 1998, deemed him Pakistan's greatest leader. According to Singh, "With Jinnah's death Pakistan lost its moorings. In India there will not easily arrive another Gandhi, nor in Pakistan another Jinnah. Malik writes, "As long as Jinnah was alive he could persuade and even pressure regional leaders toward greater mutual accommodation, but after his death, the lack of consensus on the distribution of political power and economic resources often turned controversial. According to Mohiuddin, Jinnah's death deprived Pakistan of a leader who could have enhanced stability and democratic governance The rocky road to democracy in Pakistan and the relatively smooth one in India can in some measure be ascribed to Pakistan's tragedy of losing an incorruptible and highly revered leader so soon after independence. Jinnah is depicted on all Pakistani rupee currency and is the namesake of many Pakistani public institutions. The former Quaid I As is International Airport in Karachi, now called the Jinnah International Airport is Pakistan's busiest. One of the largest streets in the Turkish capital Ankara, Cinch Caddies, is named after him, as is the Mohammad Ali Jonah Expressway in Teheran, Iran. The royalist government of Iran also released a stamp commemorating the centennial of Jinnah's birth in 1976. In Chicago a portion of Devon Avenue was named Mohammed Ali Jinnah Way. The Maar e Quaid Jinnah's mausoleum, is among Karachi's landmarks. The Jinnah Tower in Guntur Andhra Pradesh, India, was built to commemorate Jinnah. There is a considerable amount of scholarship on Jinnah which stems from Pakistan according to Akbar S. Ahmed, it is not widely read outside the country and usually avoids even the slightest criticism of Jinnah. According to Ahmed, nearly every book about Jinnah outside Pakistan mentions that he drank alcohol, but this is omitted from books inside Pakistan. Ahmed suggests that depicting the Quaid drinking alcohol would weaken Jinnah's Islamic identity, and by extension, Pakistan's. Some sources allege he gave up alcohol near the end of his life. According to historian Ayesha Jalal, while there is a tendency towards hagiography in the Pakistani view of Jinnah, in India he is viewed negatively Ahmed deems Jinnah "the most maligned person in recent Indian history In India, many see him as the demon who divided the land. Even many Indian Muslims see Jinnah negatively, blaming him for their woes as a minority in that state some historians such as Jalal and H. M. Serve assert that Jinnah never wanted partition of India it was the outcome of the Congress leaders being unwilling to share power with the Muslim League. They contend that Jinnah only used the Pakistan demand in an attempt to mobilize support to obtain significant political rights for Muslims Jinnah has gained the admiration of Indian nationalist politicians such as Lap Krishna Adjani

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